3D-printed living implants: advancing cranial reconstruction

Severe cranial defects caused by trauma, tumor resection, or congenital anomalies remain challenging to repair. Conventional cranioplasty using autografts or metal/polymer plates carries risks of donor-site morbidity, infection, and suboptimal contour. Patient-specific 3D-printed "living" implant, biodegradable scaffolds seeded with autologous cells, offer precise anatomical fit and active bone regeneration. Early clinical applications in countries including South Korea, Egypt, and Brazil demonstrate improved cosmetic outcomes, accelerated bone formation, and reduced operative time. Integrating tissue engineering with additive manufacturing represents a shift in neurosurgical reconstruction, providing biologically active solutions that restore both form and function. Ongoing research focuses on vascularization, cell viability, and clinical translation. Living 3D-printed cranial implants have the potential to redefine standards of care, emphasizing regenerative repair over inert prosthetic replacement.