Taxodium distichum L. hydroalcoholic extracts: phytochemical components, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties

Taxodium distichum (TD) hydroalcoholic extracts from cone scale (TDCS), seed (TDSE), and branch with leaf (TDBL) tissues collected in winter from Northern Iran were evaluated to assess phytochemical composition, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. Comparative profiling and bioassays revealed tissue-specific distributions of major constituents and distinct biological effects. TDBL exhibited the highest antioxidant capacity, comparable to ascorbic acid, while TDCS showed the strongest antimicrobial activity, notably against Candida albicans. The predominant compounds in TDCS were podocarpa-8,11,13-triene-7β,13-diol, 14-isopropyl- (46.83%) and ferruginol (12.8%); in TDSE: podocarpa-8,11,13-triene-7β,13-diol, 14-isopropyl- (52.1%) and ferruginol (7.97%); and in TDBL: trans-caryophyllene (10.32%), dl-limonene (10.31%), α-pinene (9.74%), γ-sitosterol (8.64%), and ferruginol (7.31%). These results demonstrate clear tissue-dependent variation in bioactive compound profiles, suggesting divergent metabolic functions of reproductive and foliar tissues and highlighting T. distichum aerial parts as promising natural sources of bioactive compounds for pharmaceutical and food applications.