Human anthrax vaccines: Current status and future prospects

Bacillus anthracis is a harmful pathogen that can pose a severe hazard to the public when deployed as a biological weapon. Human anthrax vaccines, as an effective pre-exposure prevention, can significantly reduce morbidity and mitigate public panic. However, there are still concerns toward current vaccines, such as suboptimal immune efficacy, complex vaccination procedures, adverse reactions and variations in individual immune responses. Researchers have devoted great efforts to addressing these issues and deficiencies, which have yielded many novel findings. This review mainly covers the biological characteristics of anthrax, current available human anthrax vaccines, and those still under research and development. By focusing on the antigens, adjuvants, and delivery systems in candidate vaccines, this review proposes a novel perspective for the development of next-generation anthrax vaccines.