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Updated: Jan 8, 2026

The Modular Design and Production of an Intelligent Robot Based on a Closed-Loop Control Strategy

The Modular Design and Production of an Intelligent Robot Based on a Closed-Loop Control Strategy

Published on: October 14, 2017

Measuring transparency in intelligent robots.

Georgios Angelopoulos¹, Dimitri Lacroix², Ricarda Wullenkord³

¹Interdepartmental Center for Advances in Robotic Surgery - ICAROS, University of Naples Federico II, 80131, Naples, Italy.

Scientific Reports

|December 12, 2025

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Researchers developed the first standardized scale, TOROS, to measure robot transparency. This tool assesses explainability, legibility, and predictability in human-robot interaction, aiding consistent research.

Keywords:

Human-Robot Interaction Psychometrics Scale Transparency

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Last Updated: Jan 8, 2026

The Modular Design and Production of an Intelligent Robot Based on a Closed-Loop Control Strategy

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Published on: October 14, 2017

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Area of Science:

Robotics
Human-Robot Interaction
Psychometrics

Background:

Robots are increasingly integrated into daily life.
Robot transparency is crucial for effective human-robot interaction (HRI).
A standardized measure for robot transparency was previously unavailable.

Purpose of the Study:

To address the lack of a standardized measure for robot transparency.
To introduce the first comprehensive scale for assessing perceived transparency in robotic systems.
To conceptualize robot transparency as a multidimensional construct.

Main Methods:

A rigorous three-stage development process involving 1223 participants.
Item generation, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).
Validation of the developed scale across English, German, and Italian language samples.

Main Results:

Introduction of the Transparency Of Robotic Systems (TOROS) scale.
The TOROS scale comprises 26 items across three factors: Illegibility, Explainability, and Predictability.
Demonstrated high cross-linguistic reliability, internal consistency, and convergent validity.

Conclusions:

The TOROS scale is an empirically validated tool for assessing robot transparency.
This scale contributes to the theoretical understanding of robot transparency in HRI.
TOROS provides a standardized benchmark for future HRI research.