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Embedded 3D Printing of Graphene Oxide-Containing, Chemically Crosslinkable Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Inks.

Helena P Ferreira1,2,3, Monize C Decarli4,5, Duarte Moura1,2

  • 1i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde Universidade do Porto Rua Alfredo Allen 208 4200-135 Porto Portugal.

Small Science
|December 15, 2025
PubMed
Summary

Embedded 3D printing enables fabrication of graphene oxide hydrogels for biomedical uses. This technique overcomes shape retention and photocrosslinking issues, creating complex, mechanically robust, and cytocompatible constructs.

Keywords:
additive manufacturinganti‐adhesivenessgraphene oxidepoly(ethylene glycol) hydrogelsshape retentionsupport baths

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Area of Science:

  • Biomaterials Engineering
  • Nanotechnology
  • 3D Bioprinting

Background:

  • Graphene-based hydrogels offer enhanced mechanical, electroconductive, and antimicrobial properties for biomedical applications.
  • 3D printing graphene hydrogels faces challenges like poor shape retention and hindered photocrosslinking due to high graphene concentrations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore embedded 3D printing for fabricating chemically crosslinkable poly(ethylene glycol)/graphene oxide (PEG/GO) hydrogels with high GO concentration (4% w/v).
  • To identify optimal support bath conditions for printing PEG/GO inks with insufficient shape retention and slow crosslinking.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized embedded 3D printing with a crystal self-healing embedding bioprinting (CLADDING) method using a microparticulate support bath.
  • Screened various support baths, identifying the CLADDING method with calcium chloride as the interstitial solution as most effective.
  • Fabricated multilayered PEG/GO cylindrical constructs with sub-500 μm filament width and up to 30 layers.

Main Results:

  • The CLADDING method with calcium chloride in the interstitial solution yielded PEG/GO constructs with improved tensile properties compared to baths in crosslinking initiators.
  • Successfully fabricated complex multilayered PEG/GO constructs with high GO concentration.
  • Printed PEG/GO constructs exhibited anti-adhesive surfaces towards human foreskin fibroblasts and demonstrated cytocompatibility in extracts.

Conclusions:

  • Embedded 3D printing, particularly using the CLADDING method, is an effective strategy to overcome limitations in 3D printing graphene-containing hydrogels.
  • This approach enables the creation of complex geometries with desirable mechanical properties (kPa-range) for diverse biomedical applications.
  • The developed method broadens biomanufacturing possibilities for advanced graphene-based biomaterials.