The historic development of plant virus-like particles as nanocarrier systems for bioactive molecules: Perspective...

For several decades, conventional treatments for chronic and degenerative diseases have been constrained by technological limitations, particularly those related to the physicochemical properties, stability and bioavailability of therapeutic molecules, as well as the efficiency of their delivery systems. Medical polymers are widely used in drug delivery to enhance the solubility, stability and controlled release of therapeutic agents, and they can be engineered into nanoparticles (NPs) derived from either natural or synthetic materials. Toward the end of the 20th century, the use of plant viral capsids as supramolecular structures for the packaging and controlled release of therapeutic compounds emerged, introducing a versatile, sustainable and cost-effective strategy that has progressively gained scientific and clinical relevance. Capsid proteins (CPs) derived from plant viruses can act as nanocages for drug encapsulation and delivery, and they can be surface-modified or functionalized with a wide range of biomolecules, including peptides, carbohydrates, functional groups, proteins, and oligonucleotides, through either chemical conjugation or genetic engineering approaches. This review explores the historical development, current biomedical applications, inherent challenges, and future prospects of plant-derived virus-like particles (pVLPs).