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Related Concept Videos

Cell-mediated Immune Responses01:40

Cell-mediated Immune Responses

Overview
Cells of the Innate Immune Response01:28

Cells of the Innate Immune Response

The innate immune response is an immediate and non-specific response against pathogens, acting swiftly to prevent the spread of infections. The primary cells involved in this response are phagocytes and natural killer (NK) cells.
Phagocytes
Phagocytes police the peripheral tissues by removing cellular debris and responding to the invasion of foreign substances or pathogens. Many phagocytes attack and remove microorganisms even before lymphocytes detect them. The human body has two general...
Immune Surveillance by NK Cells and Phagocytes01:25

Immune Surveillance by NK Cells and Phagocytes

Immune surveillance is an integral part of the innate immune system, involving the continuous monitoring of peripheral tissues to detect and respond to pathogens, infected cells, or cancerous cells. This surveillance is conducted primarily by natural killer (NK) cells and phagocytes, which employ distinct but complementary mechanisms to identify and eliminate threats.
Natural Killer Cells: The Fast Responders
NK cells are large granular lymphocytes found in the blood and lymphatic system. These...
Special Features of Adaptive Immunity01:20

Special Features of Adaptive Immunity

The adaptive immune system, a crucial component of the overall immune response, offers a highly specialized defense against pathogens. It involves specific cell types and features, enabling it to combat infections effectively and efficiently.
The primary cell types involved in adaptive immunity are T cells and B cells. Each type has a unique role in defending the body against pathogens. T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity. They identify and eliminate infected cells directly,...
Antigens Involved in Adaptive Immunity01:26

Antigens Involved in Adaptive Immunity

An antigen is any substance the immune system identifies as foreign and potentially harmful to the body, prompting an immune response. Antigens have two functional properties: immunogenicity and reactivity. Immunogenicity is the ability of an antigen to stimulate a specific immune response. At the same time, reactivity describes the antigen's ability to react with the cells and antibodies produced in response to it.
Complete Antigens
Complete antigens possess both immunogenicity and reactivity.
Antigen Presenting Cells01:22

Antigen Presenting Cells

The immune system is a complex network of cells and molecules that protects the body from foreign invaders. T cells, a type of white blood cell, play a crucial role in this process. They recognize and attack foreign substances, such as pathogens, that enter the body.
T cells require the help of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), which process foreign antigens into smaller fragments that can be recognized by T cells. These APCs are highly specialized cells that efficiently internalize antigens...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 13, 2026

Transplantation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Microglia in Immunocompetent Mice Brain via Non-Invasive Transnasal Route
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Transplantation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Microglia in Immunocompetent Mice Brain via Non-Invasive Transnasal Route

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Immuno-Regulation of Brain Region-Specific Organoids Containing Isogenic Microglia-Like Cells.

Chang Liu1, Justice Ene1, Wenyan Lu2

  • 1Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA.

Advanced Healthcare Materials
|December 18, 2025
PubMed
Summary

This study introduces microglia-like cells (MGCs) into brain organoids to model Alzheimer's disease (AD) neurodegeneration. The MGC-containing organoids show reduced inflammation and potential for developing new EV-based therapies for AD.

Keywords:
brain organoidsco‐cultureextracellular vesicleshuman pluripotent stem cellsmicroglia‐like cellsmulti‐omicsneural degeneration

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Transplantation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Microglia in Immunocompetent Mice Brain via Non-Invasive Transnasal Route
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Derivation of a Human Brain Organoid with Microglia Development
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Derivation of a Human Brain Organoid with Microglia Development

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Stem Cell Biology
  • Immunology

Background:

  • Human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived brain organoids often lack microglia, limiting their utility in modeling neuroinflammation.
  • Microglia-like cells (MGCs) can be differentiated from iPSCs, but their integration into brain organoids for disease modeling remains underexplored.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the characteristics of isogenic MGC-containing brain organoids in modeling Alzheimer's disease (AD) neurodegeneration.
  • To explore cell-cell communications and therapeutic potential using extracellular vesicles (EVs) in an AD brain organoid model.

Main Methods:

  • Co-culture of iPSC-derived MGCs with isogenic forebrain cortical organoids (iFCo).
  • Stimulation of organoids with EVs from AD patient-derived iPSCs and subsequent treatment with EVs from healthy MGCs or co-cultures.
  • Proteomic and microRNA-sequencing analysis of AD EVs to identify cargo and regulated pathways.

Main Results:

  • Co-cultured organoids demonstrated mitigated pro-inflammatory gene expression in response to AD EVs.
  • EVs from healthy MGCs or co-cultures reduced key inflammatory and degeneration markers (IL-12β, iNOS, TREM2, CASS4).
  • AD EVs contained APOE and APP proteins; microRNA analysis revealed regulation of mitophagy and other pathways.

Conclusions:

  • MGC-containing brain organoids offer a more comprehensive model for studying neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation in AD.
  • EVs from healthy MGCs or co-cultures exhibit therapeutic potential by modulating inflammatory responses.
  • This model system and EV cargo analysis provide insights for developing EV-based cell-free therapeutics for AD.