Vascularisation in 3D bioprinted models: emerging solutions engineering functional tissues and tumour models

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting enables the fabrication of tissues with controlled architecture and cell composition, yet the formation of mature and functional vascular networks remains a major bottleneck for clinical translation. Constructs thicker than 100-200µm require stable and perfusable vasculature to sustain viability. This review compares vascularisation strategies in two contrasting contexts: regenerative tissue engineering, which requires hierarchical, mechanically stable networks capable of long-term perfusion and host integration, and tumour microenvironment modelling, which demands heterogeneous, leaky, and dynamically remodelling vasculature. Vascularisation approaches are examined across the complementary, technological and biological axes. The technological axis encompasses extrusion-, inkjet-, laser-, and microfluidic-assisted bioprinting methods, each with distinct trade-offs in resolution, cell viability, and scalability. Additionally, lumen-forming strategies, sacrificial, embedded, and coaxial printing, enable controlled formation of perfusable channels, while modular microgel-based bioinks enhance porosity, nutrient diffusion, and matrix remodelling. The biological axis comprises prevascularisation strategies and cellular mechanisms that drive functional vessel formation. Growth factor delivery (VEGF, FGF, PDGF) and hypoxia-driven angiogenesis provide biochemical stimuli, while co-culture systems combining endothelial cells with stromal partners (fibroblasts, pericytes, mesenchymal stem cells) promote endothelialisation, vessel stabilisation, and functional network formation. Mechanical and biochemical cues, including controlled flow, shear stress, and angiogenic factor gradients, are presented as key regulators of vascular maturation and perfusion stability. Validation metrics such as perfusion stability, oxygenation profiles, barrier integrity, and drug transport are emphasised as essential for assessing physiological relevance. Emerging technologies, including smart stimuli-responsive bioinks, 4D bioprinting enabling temporal tissue transformation, and AI-assisted adaptive volumetric fabrication, offer promising solutions for context-aware and dynamically regulated vascular systems. Together, this comparative framework guides strategy selection for either long-term regenerative perfusion or the pathophysiological complexity of tumour vascularisation, and provides practical design principles for translating vascularised tissue models toward clinical application and industrial-scale biofabrication.