Interoceptive rhythms and perceptual experience: Mechanisms, contexts, and strategies for real-world research

A growing body of evidence highlights the significant role of internal rhythmic signals from the heart, lungs, and stomach in shaping perception. These physiological cycles influence sensory processing across various tasks, ranging from basic detection to complex functions such as emotion recognition and decision-making. The first section of this review discusses the physiological underpinnings of each organ-brain axis and synthesizes research illustrating how cardiac, respiratory, and gastric rhythms impact perceptual experience. Altogether, these findings highlight the influence of interoceptive rhythms on moment-to moment perception. Although effects may vary based on specific task demands, a key trend emerges: perception may fluctuate as signal processing resources are dynamically required between external sensory demands and internal bodily cycles. Acknowledging limitations of existing research, the second section indicates strategies to enhance the ecological validity and generalizability of interoception-perception studies. Our review of participant demographics reveals a pressing need for greater diversity. Also, we propose incorporating multimodal physiological recordings, wearable technologies, and active paradigms that better reflect real-world behaviors. Finally, we examine emerging theoretical models integrated into ecologically relevant research designs. By proposing a novel model of Perception-Interoception interactions, as well as bridging traditional laboratory methods with naturalistic settings, our novel ecological framework may advance the understanding of how interoceptive signals shape embodied perception in daily life.