Retrieving the chlorophyll content of individual apple trees by reducing canopy shadow impact via a 3D radiative...

Accurate monitoring and spatial distribution of the leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) and canopy chlorophyll content (CCC) of individual apple trees are highly important for the effective management of individual plants and the promotion of the construction of modern smart orchards. However, the estimation of LCC and CCC is affected by shadows caused by canopy structure and observation geometry. In this study, we resolved the response relationship between individual apple tree crown spectra and shadows through a three-dimensional radiative transfer model (3D RTM) and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) multispectral images, assessed the resistance of a series of vegetation indices (VIs) to shadows and developed a hybrid inversion model that is resistant to shadow interference. The results revealed that (1) the proportion of individual tree canopy shadows exhibited a parabolic trend with time, with a minimum occurring at noon. Correspondingly, the reflectance in the visible band decreased with increasing canopy shadow ratio and reached a maximum value at noon, whereas the pattern of change in the reflectance in the near-infrared band was opposite that in the visible band. (2) The accuracy of chlorophyll content estimation varies among different VIs at different canopy shadow ratios. The top five VIs that are most resistant to changes in canopy shadow ratios are the NDVI-RE, Cire, Cigreen, TVI, and GNDVI. (3) For the constructed 3D RTM ​+ ​GPR hybrid inversion model, only four VIs, namely, NDVI-RE, Cire, Cigreen, and TVI, need to be input to achieve the best inversion accuracy. (4) Both the LCC and the CCC of individual trees had good validation accuracy (LCC: R² ​= ​0.775, RMSE ​= ​6.86 ​μg/cm², nRMSE ​= ​12.24 ​%; CCC: R² ​= ​0.784, RMSE ​= ​32.33 ​μg/cm², and nRMSE ​= ​14.49 ​%), and their distributions at orchard scales were characterized by considerable spatial heterogeneity. This study provides ideas for investigating the response between individual tree canopy shadows and spectra and offers a new strategy for minimizing the influence of shadow effects on the accurate estimation of chlorophyll content in individual apple trees.