Assessment of seabird vulnerability to offshore wind farms in China

Offshore wind farm (OWF) development is expanding worldwide, yet its ecological implications for seabirds remain insufficiently understood in many regions. China now hosts the fastest-growing OWF industry globally, while systematic assessments of seabird vulnerability are lacking due to limited ecological data. In this study, we adapt and localize established international methodologies to evaluate the vulnerability of 75 seabird species to OWFs. Species Vulnerability Indices (SVIs) were derived from three dimensions: collision risk, displacement vulnerability, and population sensitivity. Pelicans, albatrosses, boobies, and grebes emerged as the most vulnerable groups. To demonstrate its practical application, we applied the framework in the outer Yangtze River Estuary using three seasons of boat-based survey data. Results showed predominantly low-to medium-risk species, with relatively minor risks in deeper eastern waters. This framework provides a practical, quantitative tool to integrate seabird conservation into China's OWF planning, supporting biodiversity-sensitive marine spatial management.