Global microplastic contamination in freshwater lakes: Spatial patterns, environmental drivers, and methodological...

Microplastic (MP) pollution in freshwater lakes is an emerging global concern, yet comprehensive assessments remain limited. This review systematically analyzes 84 studies comprising 1268 individual sampling points across over 300 lakes worldwide, selecting only data based on FTIR and Raman spectroscopy to ensure identification reliability. MP concentrations in surface waters ranged from below 0.001 to over 200 MP/L, with the highest levels observed in shallow, lowland, and eutrophic systems. Fibers and fragments dominated MP shapes in both water and sediments, and polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate were the most commonly detected polymers, mirroring global plastic production trends. Environmental parameters such as trophic state, shoreline urbanization index and lake morphology were identified as key drivers of MP abundance and characteristics. A clear horizontal gradient was observed, with MP concentrations decreasing from shorelines toward lake centers. However, methodological inconsistencies remain a major obstacle to accurate assessments, including the dominance of surface-only sampling (96.5 % of lakes), limited spatial replication (over 70 % single-point sampling), and the frequent omission of MPs <300 μm. These shortcomings highlight the urgent need for standardized, multi-depth, and year-round sampling strategies, as well as harmonized size fractionation and validation protocols, to ensure robust and comparable future assessments of MP pollution in freshwater ecosystems.