Physical Stimuli-Based Biomaterials for Bone Regeneration

Bone defects caused by trauma and tumor resection pose a substantial burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Although small bone defects may heal naturally, defects that exceed a critical size typically fail to heal. Despite the longstanding use of bone grafting as a treatment approach for large bone defects, numerous limitations remain in this field. Bone tissue engineering (BTE) has provided new avenues for new treatment strategies in bone regeneration. The bone regeneration process is inherently intricate and influenced by multiple factors. Beyond biochemical interventions, physical stimuli have gained increasing attention, primarily due to their safety, noninvasive nature, and controllability. Emerging research has well-documented demonstrated that the synergistic integration of physical stimuli with biomaterials can more effectively modulate the immune microenvironment, enhance angiogenesis, and promote osteogenesis. Crucially, parameters such as frequency, intensity, and duration of physical stimuli are pivotal in promoting bone regeneration. This review delves into the different forms of physical stimuli integrated with biomaterials and summarizes their optimal parameter settings. Furthermore, the mechanisms underlying bone regeneration are explored, with the aim of improving the design, development, and clinical application of biomaterials that respond to physical stimuli.