Second language vocabulary learning: The interplay between learning mode, testing mode and word class

Theoretical accounts of second language (L2) vocabulary learning vary in the degree to which they see word meanings as grounded in non-linguistic experience or as determined distributionally. However, research on the roles of sensorimotor and linguistic processes in L2 vocabulary has failed to produce consistent results. A frequent focus has been on the influence of learning methods on L2 vocabulary learning, but studies have usually failed to consider possible moderating variables, such as word properties or congruence between learning modes and testing modes. The present experiments address these gaps by systematically examining how learning mode, testing mode, word class, and translational ambiguity interact in L2 vocabulary learning. Two experiments (N = 320 adults) investigated the effects of picture-based versus text-based learning and differing testing modes on learning of different word types. Results showed that the effects of learning mode were not universal but depended on the interaction with the testing mode. Furthermore, results revealed a consistent interaction between testing mode and word class. Specifically, text-based testing was particularly advantageous for verbs and prepositions, indicating that different word classes engage distinct cognitive processes and grounding mechanisms. These findings integrate embodied and distributional perspectives by acknowledging the roles of both sensorimotor and linguistic networks, thus supporting hybrid language models. Moreover, we present a model of L2 vocabulary learning that recognises the importance of aligning testing mode with word class. Such a model may contribute to the development of refined instructional strategies and digital learning tools that more effectively harness different learning and testing modes to enhance L2 vocabulary learning.