How public open spaces co-construct solitary experiences in densely populated urban environments

Loneliness in high-density cities is increasingly being recognised as a public health crisis, but the role of built environments in shaping the feelings of loneliness and solitary experiences remains underexplored. This study investigates how socio-material networks in Hong Kong's public open spaces (POSs) co-construct solitary experiences and contribute to emotional well-being. Using a mixed-methods approach, including individual-centred behavioural mappings, on-site ethnographic interviews (n = 84), and multi-sensory experiential observations, this research reveals that POSs function as emotional refuges, enabling individuals to seek solitude for enjoyment, to escape domestic constraints, and to pause, rest, and reflect. The findings show that solitary experiences emerge through the interplay of human and non-human actants, including people, cultural norms, spatial settings, and environmental conditions. Spatial affordances such as shaded seating, visual seclusion, and proximity to transport networks significantly influence solitary practices. Moreover, POSs frequently serve as complements to other environments, offering respite from overcrowded and stressful home conditions and fast-paced working environments. This study highlights the need for urban planners to recognise solitude as a legitimate and valuable public space experience. It calls for POS designs that incorporate diverse spatial features to support both solitude and sociality, and it advocates for relational perspectives on socio-material networks in research and policy-making to address the emotional complexities of urban life.