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Updated: Jan 8, 2026
Development and Assessment of Intracellular Infection Models for Staphylococcus aureus
Published on: January 17, 2025
Progress in Research on Macrophage Polarization Mechanisms and Targeted Therapies in Staphylococcus aureus Infections
Wentong Yan1, Xupeng Li1, Sen Xu1
1First Clinical College, Gansu University of Chinese Medicine, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730000, People's Republic of China.
Abstract:
Staphylococcus aureus is a clinically prevalent, Gram-positive pathogen that can cause multiple severe infections. Macrophage polarization plays a central role in host defense and inflammatory regulation, with its M1/M2 dynamic equilibrium directly determining infection outcomes. The M1 phenotype eliminates pathogens through pro-inflammatory responses in the early phase, but excessive activation readily leads to tissue damage. In contrast, the M2 phenotype suppresses inflammation and promotes healing during the repair phase, although it may become a pathogen refuge in chronic infections. Recent studies have elucidated the roles of PAMPs, virulence factors, immunometabolism, and epigenetics in regulating polarization and have explored intervention strategies involving stem cells, exosomes, nanodelivery, novel formulations, and natural medicines, offering new avenues to overcome antibiotic limitations. However, existing evidence remains confined to animal studies, and challenges related to polarization heterogeneity and clinical translation require urgent resolution. This review summarizes the mechanisms of macrophage polarization and targeted therapeutic advances in the context of S. aureus infection, aiming to provide insights for immune interventions against drug-resistant infections.
Insights
Staphylococcus aureus infections involve macrophage polarization (M1/M2 balance). This review explores therapeutic strategies targeting macrophage polarization to combat antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections.
Area of Science:
- Immunology
- Microbiology
- Infectious Diseases
Background:
- Staphylococcus aureus is a major Gram-positive pathogen causing severe infections.
- Macrophage polarization (M1/M2 balance) is critical for host defense and regulating inflammation during infection.
- Dysregulated macrophage polarization can lead to tissue damage or pathogen persistence.
Purpose of the Study:
- To review the mechanisms regulating macrophage polarization in Staphylococcus aureus infections.
- To summarize recent therapeutic advances targeting macrophage polarization.
- To provide insights for immune interventions against drug-resistant infections.
Main Methods:
- Literature review of studies on Staphylococcus aureus infection and macrophage polarization.
- Analysis of factors influencing macrophage polarization (PAMPs, virulence factors, immunometabolism, epigenetics).
- Examination of therapeutic strategies including stem cells, exosomes, nanodelivery, and natural medicines.
Main Results:
- Macrophage polarization dynamics (M1 for pathogen clearance, M2 for repair) are central to S. aureus infection outcomes.
- Various factors and novel strategies are being explored to modulate macrophage polarization.
- Current evidence is primarily from animal studies, highlighting challenges in clinical translation and polarization heterogeneity.
Conclusions:
- Targeting macrophage polarization offers a promising avenue for combating S. aureus infections, especially antibiotic-resistant strains.
- Further research is needed to address heterogeneity and translate findings into clinical applications.
- Immune-based interventions hold potential to overcome limitations of conventional antibiotics.
