Comparative Evaluation of Production Techniques for Tactile Map Rendering

Rapid advances in engineering and materials science have introduced new possibilities for the fabrication of passive haptic interfaces such as tactile maps. This study proposes a dual-aspect evaluation methodology-based on user experience and production efficiency-to assess 12 tactile map production techniques, including additive manufacturing methods (e.g., SLA, UV printing), casting (epoxy resin, silicone), CNC milling and paper-based techniques (e.g., swell-paper, TIGER). The user experience aspect includes spatial localisation tasks, semantic differential ratings, and user rankings conducted with 21 people with visual impairments. It captures tactile comfort, symbol legibility, and perceptual clarity during 90-minute sessions using custom-designed pseudomaps. The production efficiency aspect considers cost, complexity, durability (including weather resistance), and versatility in reproducing hybrid - tactile and graphic content. The results showed that paper-based techniques offered high tactile comfort but lower spatial accuracy, legibility, and durability. In contrast, PolyJet and UV printing scored highest overall by balancing perceptual performance and practical production attributes. Several techniques-including UV printing and PolyJet-were evaluated for tactile map production for the first time. Our methodology is modular and adaptable: weights can be adjusted to prioritize specific application needs, such as cost-efficiency or outdoor durability. A case study involving tactile maps of historic gardens demonstrates the framework's utility in real-world use cases. This work contributes to the design and evaluation of passive haptic interfaces by providing a replicable tool for comparing tactile rendering methods across diverse material and perceptual dimensions.