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Related Concept Videos

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Primary care promotes wellness and prevents disease. This care includes health promotion, education, protection (such as immunizations), early disease screening, and environmental considerations. Settings providing this type of healthcare include physician offices, public health clinics, school nursing, and community health nursing.
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Health promotion allows a person to control the determinants of health, resulting in an improved health status. It enhances the quality of life and reduces premature deaths. Health promotion and illness prevention programs help people make beneficial choices to reduce the risk of disease and disabilities. There are three health promotion and illness prevention levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention.
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Preventive healthcare services keep people healthy via frequent check-ups, screening, and counseling. They primarily aid in disease prevention rather than treating an acute or chronic illness. Preventive treatment also keeps individuals productive and energetic, allowing them to work well into their retirement years. Examples of preventive care services include:
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Principles of Disease Surveillance

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Disease surveillance is the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of health data essential to the planning, implementation, and evaluation of public health practice. This process integrates data dissemination to entities responsible for preventing and controlling disease, injury, and disability. Surveillance systems provide crucial information for action, helping public health authorities make informed decisions to manage and prevent outbreaks, ensure public safety, optimize...
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There are various healthcare agencies in the United States—some of which are managed by religious institutions and others by different government branches.
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Public Health.

Jie Liu1, Liangjun Dang1, Shan Wei1

  • 1The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China.

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|December 23, 2025
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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Smoking significantly increases the risk of cognitive decline in the elderly. This study found that older smokers had a substantially higher risk of cognitive impairment compared to non-smokers.

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Area of Science:

  • Gerontology
  • Neuroscience
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Smoking is a known risk factor for cognitive impairment.
  • The precise relationship between smoking and cognitive decline requires further investigation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To examine the association between smoking status and cognitive decline in a rural Xi'an cohort.
  • To investigate the influence of age on this relationship.

Main Methods:

  • A cohort of cognitively normal middle-aged and elderly individuals in rural Xi'an was studied.
  • Participants were categorized into smokers, ex-smokers, and non-smokers based on 2018 survey data.
  • Cognitive function was assessed using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), with cognitive decline defined as a ΔMMSE of ≥2 between 2014 and 2018.

Main Results:

  • The study included 1289 participants: 910 non-smokers, 335 smokers, and 44 ex-smokers.
  • Overall, no significant difference in cognitive decline incidence was observed across smoking groups (p=0.880).
  • However, in individuals aged 65 and older, adjusted analysis revealed a significantly higher risk of cognitive decline for smokers compared to non-smokers (OR=14.139, p=0.019).

Conclusions:

  • Smoking is positively associated with cognitive decline in the elderly population.
  • The findings suggest that smoking may accelerate cognitive decline in older adults.