Molecular Mechanisms of Venom Diversity

Animal venoms are valuable resources for drug discovery. They offer a wide variety of bioactive molecules with significant biotechnological potential. Venom composition shows extensive diversity not only between and within species, but also across the lifetime of an individual. This natural variation further enhances the biotechnological potential of venoms, supporting the development and optimization of venom-derived drugs. Despite numerous studies highlighting the variability of venom, many lack a coherent framework to explain the underlying causes of this diversity. In this review, we explore the molecular and evolutionary mechanisms driving variations in venom composition and the evolution of venom systems, including gene regulation, point mutations, gene duplication events, modulation by miRNAs, alternative splicing and post-translational modifications as driving forces of venom component diversity. We also discuss the critical role of omics technologies and comparative studies in advancing our understanding of the diversity of venom and their contribution to the identification, development, and refinement of venom-based product candidates. The aspects reviewed here are relevant for future omics study designs to advance venom research and biodiscovery.