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Cardiac biomarkers are enzymes, proteins, and hormones released into the blood when cardiac cells are injured. They are powerful tools for triaging.
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Cardiac biomarkers are critical in diagnosing, prognosing, and managing cardiovascular diseases. Routine measurement of specific biomarkers such as B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), C-reactive protein (CRP), and homocysteine (Hcy) is common practice in clinical settings to evaluate heart function and predict cardiovascular events.
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Dried Blood Spot Collection of Health Biomarkers to Maximize Participation in Population Studies
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Biomarkers.

Belen Pascual1, Alireza Faridar1, Quentin Finn1

  • 1Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX, USA.

Alzheimer'S & Dementia : the Journal of the Alzheimer'S Association
|December 24, 2025
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Interleukin-2 immunotherapy improved Alzheimer's disease biomarkers and cognitive function, but translocator protein (TSPO) PET imaging did not change. Future studies may require novel PET tracers for inflammation.

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Immunology
  • Radiochemistry

Background:

  • Translocator protein (TSPO) PET imaging assesses brain inflammation by targeting microglia and macrophages.
  • Current TSPO PET tracers cannot distinguish between pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) microglial phenotypes.
  • The utility of TSPO PET in Alzheimer's disease (AD) clinical trials targeting inflammation is underexplored.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the changes in brain inflammation using 11C-ER176 TSPO PET before and after an immunomodulatory Interleukin-2 (IL-2) clinical trial in Alzheimer's disease patients.
  • To assess the impact of IL-2 immunotherapy on T regulatory (Treg) cell populations, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers, and cognitive function.

Main Methods:

  • A phase 2a, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial involving 38 AD patients (ages 50-86).
  • Participants received IL-2 every 4 weeks (IL-2 q4wks), IL-2 every 2 weeks (IL-2 q2wks), or placebo for 21 weeks.
  • 11C-ER176 PET scans, CSF/blood biomarkers, and clinical assessments were performed pre- and post-treatment.

Main Results:

  • No significant changes in TSPO PET binding were observed across all groups.
  • Both IL-2 regimens increased Treg numbers and function; IL-2 q4wks showed greater efficacy.
  • The IL-2 q4wks group demonstrated significant improvements in CSF Aβ42 and trends toward stabilized CSF NfL, with reduced GFAP levels compared to placebo.
  • A slowing of cognitive decline was observed in the IL-2 q4wks group compared to placebo.

Conclusions:

  • IL-2 immunotherapy at a q4wks frequency enhanced Treg populations and showed promising trends in AD biomarkers and cognitive function.
  • TSPO PET imaging with 11C-ER176 did not detect significant changes in brain inflammation over the 21-week trial.
  • Future AD clinical trials may benefit from longer follow-up, larger sample sizes, or novel PET tracers targeting specific immune cell phenotypes (M1/M2 macrophages) or other inflammatory pathways.