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Related Concept Videos

Blood Studies for Cardiovascular System I: Cardiac Biomarkers01:20

Blood Studies for Cardiovascular System I: Cardiac Biomarkers

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Cardiac biomarkers are enzymes, proteins, and hormones released into the blood when cardiac cells are injured. They are powerful tools for triaging.
The essential diagnostic tools for detecting myocardial necrosis and monitoring individuals suspected of having acute coronary syndrome (ACS) include:
Troponins
Troponins, particularly cardiac troponins I and T, are the most precise and sensitive markers of myocardial injury. They are detectable within 4-6 hours of myocardial injury and remain...
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Blood Studies for Cardiovascular System II: CRP, Hcy, and Cardiac Natriuretic Peptide Markers01:19

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Cardiac biomarkers are critical in diagnosing, prognosing, and managing cardiovascular diseases. Routine measurement of specific biomarkers such as B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), C-reactive protein (CRP), and homocysteine (Hcy) is common practice in clinical settings to evaluate heart function and predict cardiovascular events.
These markers indicate stress or strain on the heart muscle:
Natriuretic Peptides (BNP)
Cardiac myocytes produce these hormones in response to ventricular stretching...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 7, 2026

Dried Blood Spot Collection of Health Biomarkers to Maximize Participation in Population Studies
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Biomarkers.

Jennifer A Frontera1, Allal Boutajangout1,2,3, Joshua Chodosh1,2

  • 1NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.

Alzheimer'S & Dementia : the Journal of the Alzheimer'S Association
|December 24, 2025
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Summary

Post-COVID-19 cognitive impairment, or brain fog, may stem from immune exhaustion and increased blood-brain barrier permeability. This study found lower cytokine levels and higher BBB disruption markers in patients experiencing brain fog after SARS-CoV-2 infection.

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Immunology
  • Infectious Diseases

Background:

  • Mechanisms of post-COVID-19 cognitive impairment remain unclear.
  • Increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and immune alterations are suspected contributors.
  • Brain fog, characterized by memory loss and concentration difficulties, affects many post-SARS-CoV-2 patients.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate potential biological mechanisms underlying post-COVID-19 brain fog.
  • To compare plasma biomarkers of inflammation, BBB disruption, and tau pathology in patients with and without brain fog.
  • To identify differences in biomarkers between COVID-19 patients with and without cognitive impairment.

Main Methods:

  • Cross-sectional study comparing COVID-19 positive (COV+) and negative (COV-) patients.
  • Defined brain fog as persistent cognitive symptoms (>1 month) post-SARS-CoV-2 infection.
  • Measured plasma cytokines, BBB markers (e.g., heparin-binding epidermal growth factor), and phosphorylated tau (pTau) using Simoa technology.
  • Assessed cognitive function via neuropsychiatric testing and physician consensus diagnosis (NACC criteria).

Main Results:

  • Lower levels of several cytokines (TNF-a, IL-4, IL-10, IL-22) were observed in patients with brain fog.
  • Increased markers of BBB permeability (heparin-binding epidermal growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, placental growth factor) were found in brain fog patients.
  • COVID-19 patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) showed lower TNF-a and higher pTau-217 (in Alzheimer's cases) compared to cognitively normal individuals.

Conclusions:

  • Findings suggest immune exhaustion and increased BBB permeability as potential mechanisms for post-COVID-19 brain fog.
  • Altered tau pathology markers indicate disrupted tau processing may also contribute to cognitive deficits.
  • Biomarker analysis provides insights into the pathophysiology of neurological sequelae following SARS-CoV-2 infection.