The neural basis of sequence learning: A neuroimaging meta-analysis across social, cognitive and motor domains

Despite its importance, sequence learning has been mostly studied in the visuo-motor domain and its neural underpinnings are debated. Here, we present a novel coordinate-based meta-analysis of brain areas involved in deterministic sequence learning across social mentalizing, cognitive, visuo-motor and motor domains, under both implicit and explicit conditions, focusing primarily on acquisition. The analysis revealed a central network including frontal areas, cerebellum, and basal ganglia, with domain-specific specializations. At the cortical level, the medial prefrontal cortex appears to be specifically involved in the sequential order of social inputs that support and elicit representation of others' mental states. In addition, the primary motor cortex is more engaged during motor-only tasks to ensure accurate motor sequential action execution, while the premotor cortex and the superior parietal areas are particularly active during visuo-motor sequence tasks likely supporting visuo-motor integration. Within subcortical regions, a functional gradient was observed in the cerebellum along the anterior to posterior axis, while the basal ganglia showed a functional specialization from lateral to medial regions, both reflecting a shift from motor-only and visuo-motor processing to more complex cognitive and social functions. The different domains highlight distinct integrated functional circuits involving the sensorimotor, ventral/dorsal attention and mentalizing/default mode networks. Within the visuo-motor domain, at the subcortical level, implicit learning relies on basal ganglia, while explicit learning involves the cerebellum. The cerebellum may contribute to the early acquisition stage in implicit learning, though evidence remains limited. This study shows how the brain shapes sequence learning, crucial for motor and social-cognitive behavior.