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Cognitive Learning01:21

Cognitive Learning

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Cognitive learning is based on purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning.
E. C. Tolman's theory of purposive behavior emphasizes that much behavior is goal-directed. He argued that to understand behavior, we must look at the entire sequence of actions leading to a goal. For instance, high school students study hard, not just due to past reinforcement but also to achieve the goal of getting into a good college.
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Theory of Attribution II: Kelley's Covariation Theory01:29

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Attribution theory plays a crucial role in social psychology, helping to explain how individuals interpret the causes of behavior. One prominent model within this field is Harold Kelley's covariation theory, which provides a systematic approach to determining whether internal traits or external circumstances drive a person's actions. The model posits that individuals rely on three key types of information—consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness—to make these judgments.Consensus:...
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Introspection01:29

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Introspection, long upheld as a reliable route to self-knowledge, involves examining one's thoughts, emotions, and mental processes. It underpins many psychological practices, from mindfulness meditation to psychotherapy and self-help strategies. However, empirical evidence challenges the accuracy of introspection as a means of understanding oneself.Limitations of Introspective InsightSeminal work by Nisbett and Wilson demonstrated that individuals are frequently unaware of the true causes...
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Hindsight Biases01:12

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Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did. Can you relate this to the phrase "Hindsight is 20/20" now? 
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Lazarus's Cognitive Appraisal Theory01:20

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Cognitive psychologist Richard Lazarus proposed the cognitive-mediational theory of emotions, which emphasizes how individuals' assessments of stressors significantly affect their experience of stress. According to Lazarus, the stress response is determined by a two-step appraisal process: primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. These cognitive appraisals help individuals evaluate the potential impact of a stressor and determine the adequacy of their coping resources.
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Information Processing Approach01:30

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The information-processing theory of cognitive development centers on fundamental mental processes, including attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. Researchers in this field examine how cognitive abilities, such as working memory, evolve and influence children's overall development. Studies indicate that children with stronger working memory tend to excel in reading comprehension, math, and problem-solving compared to peers with less efficient memory skills. Low working memory is...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 7, 2026

Online Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of Dorsomedial and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Cognition Decision Making, and Cognitive Dissonance
13:20

Online Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of Dorsomedial and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Cognition Decision Making, and Cognitive Dissonance

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Improving cognition and perception towards failure: a conceptual replication study.

Tanmay Sinha1

  • 1National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.

Frontiers in Psychology
|December 25, 2025
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Students improved their learning goals and attitudes toward mistakes after an intervention combining growth mindset and utility value principles. This approach helps reframe failure as a learning opportunity, though deeper beliefs about ability require further exploration.

Keywords:
failuregoal orientationgrowth mindsetlearning designutility value

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Area of Science:

  • Educational Psychology
  • Learning Sciences

Background:

  • Failure is often perceived negatively by students, creating a motivational barrier to learning.
  • Integrating growth mindset and utility value concepts can potentially enhance students' attitudes toward failure.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the combined effects of growth mindset and utility value principles on students' dispositions toward failure.
  • To assess the impact of a pilot intervention on students' learning goal orientation, attitude toward mistakes, beliefs about ability, and the utility of failure.

Main Methods:

  • A conceptual replication study with a single-group pre-post design.
  • Intervention involved 68 lower secondary students in Singapore using prediction-explanation cycles and reframing failure quotes.
  • Mixed methods analyses were employed to evaluate changes in student dispositions.

Main Results:

  • Significant improvements were observed in students' learning goal orientation and attitude toward mistakes (strong effect sizes).
  • Beliefs about ability and the utility of failure showed non-significant improvements (weak to moderate effects).
  • The intervention demonstrated rapid change in areas typically resistant to educational influence.

Conclusions:

  • Combining growth mindset and utility value principles can positively influence students' immediate perceptions and goals regarding failure.
  • Educators should design repeated sense-making opportunities, including reflection and vicarious learning, to foster better cognition and perception of failure.
  • Further interventions may be needed to address deeper cognitive orientations related to ability and the perceived utility of failure.