Source-specific health risks of metallic elements in road dust from coal mining affected urban areas using an...

Metallic element (ME) contamination in urban road dust poses critical environmental and health challenges, particularly in Dhanbad, eastern India, representing one of the most intensively coal-mining-impacted urban regions in India, with over 112 active and abandoned mines, extensive overburden dumps, and widespread coal transportation corridors. This study systematically analyzed 44 composite road dust samples to quantify multiple MEs. Spatial interpolations, various geochemical indices, integrated Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF)- human health risk (HHR) framework based on Monte Carlo simulation was applied to comprehend the risk assessment. Excluding Al, all MEs exceeded their background value. Geochemical indices revealed moderate to very high contamination levels, particularly from Cd, As, and Cr. Spatial interpolation maps highlighted that coal mining zones, overburden dumps, and traffic-dense corridors, were the most polluted sites, prevailing in the central and NW-SE directions. Four major source factors of pollution were identified as mixed sources (F1), coal mining operations (F2), automotive and industrial emissions (F3), and lithogenic/overburden rock (F4). Multivariate statistical analyses further corroborated the findings of PMF. The integrated PMF-HHR framework, coupled with Monte Carlo simulation, revealed substantial non-carcinogenic (NCR) and carcinogenic risks (CR) for both adults and children. F2 followed by F3 were the predominant contributors to human health risks. Overall, the integrated PMF-HHR framework effectively linked source contributions to quantified health outcomes, providing a reliable tool for source-oriented risk management and mitigation in coal mining-affected urban environments.