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The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect indicates a “loss” in mass of 4.0331 amu – 4.0026 amu = 0.0305 amu. The loss in mass accompanying the formation of an atom from protons, neutrons, and electrons is due to the conversion of that mass into energy that is evolved as the atom forms. The nuclear binding energy is the energy produced when the atoms’ nucleons...
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Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by bombardment with neutrons has six components: nuclear fuel consisting of fissionable material, a nuclear moderator, a neutron source, control rods, reactor coolant, and a shield and containment system.
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The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process called fusion. The principal source of energy in the sun is a net fusion reaction in which four hydrogen nuclei fuse and ultimately produce one helium nucleus and two positrons.
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Heat capacity is the ratio of heat absorbed by the substance corresponding to its temperature change. It is also called thermal capacity and the SI unit of heat capacity is J/K. Whereas, specific heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat necessary to change the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K and is also called massic heat capacity. Its SI unit is J/kg⋅K.
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Heat Capacities of an Ideal Gas II01:23

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For a system that undergoes a thermodynamic process at a constant volume condition, the heat absorbed is used only to increase the system's internal energy and not for doing any kind of work. While for a system undergoing a thermodynamic process under a constant pressure condition, the amount of heat absorbed is used not only for increasing the internal energy (as a function of temperature) but also for doing some work. The molar heat capacity is the amount of heat required to increase the...
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The number of independent ways a gas molecule can move along straight line, rotate, and vibrate is called its degrees of freedom. Supposing d represents the number of degrees of freedom of an ideal gas, the molar heat capacity at constant volume of an ideal gas in terms of d is
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Highly ordered rubbers with a giant elastocaloric effect.

Yuheng Fu1, Shixian Zhang2, Borui Li1

  • 1State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, and School of Materials Science and Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China.

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|January 1, 2026
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This summary is machine-generated.

Researchers developed a novel rubber material for solid-state cooling. This new material exhibits a significantly enhanced elastocaloric effect, paving the way for more efficient refrigeration technologies.

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Thermodynamics
  • Solid-State Physics

Background:

  • Rubbers are promising for elastocaloric cooling due to their low driving force and high coefficient of performance.
  • The elastocaloric effect in conventional rubbers is limited by molecular chain disorder.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To overcome the limitations of molecular disorder in rubbers for enhanced elastocaloric cooling.
  • To develop a high-performance elastocaloric polymer and a functional refrigeration device.

Main Methods:

  • Synthesizing rubbers from cycloaliphatic diisocyanate and ordered polyol.
  • Characterizing short- and long-range ordering and strain-induced crystallinity.
  • Measuring adiabatic temperature and isothermal entropy changes.
  • Developing a rubber-based roll-to-roll stretching refrigeration device.

Main Results:

  • Achieved high short- and long-range ordering in synthesized rubbers.
  • Demonstrated strain-induced crystallinity up to 66.3%.
  • Obtained a significant adiabatic temperature change of 20.1 K and isothermal entropy change of 179.8 J/kg·K.
  • Developed a novel roll-to-roll stretching refrigeration device.

Conclusions:

  • Structurally optimized rubbers exhibit superior elastocaloric properties compared to previous polymers.
  • The developed device addresses limitations of conventional elastocaloric polymer devices.
  • This work advances the field of solid-state cooling using advanced polymer materials.