Organophosphate pesticides in cereal grains: analytical advances, processing, and risk assessment

Organophosphate (OP) pesticides remain among the most frequently detected residues in global cereal production, making their accurate measurements and risk characterization essential for food safety. This review synthesizes current knowledge on OP residue behaviour in major cereals including rice, wheat, and maize, emphasizing analytical approach for detection, quantification, and confirmation. Advances in sample operation (QuEChERS variants, d-SPE clean-up), chromatographic (GC-MS/MS, LC-MS/MS), and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) are critically evaluated with respect to sensitivity, matrix effects, and multi-residue performance. Processing and storage factors influencing OP residue dissipation-milling, polishing, cooking, and processing factor variability-are summarized with quantitative reductions. Comparative evaluation of international MRLs is provided alongside risk assessment applications using worked examples. Key analytical gaps include insufficient coverage of degradates, limited multi-matrix validation, and variability in processing factors across cereal products. This review highlights emerging analytical tools and harmonized residue-evaluation frameworks needed to strengthen surveillance of OPs in cereal-based foods.