Plastics in transition: Global regulations and emerging technologies for sustainable management

Plastic pollution and the generation of secondary microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) remain critical challenges for environmental management, driven by increasing production, inadequate waste systems, and uneven regulatory enforcement. This review critically examines how global and regional regulatory frameworks interact with emerging technological pathways to influence plastic leakage, MP/NP formation, and environmental outcomes across the plastic life cycle. We synthesize recent evidence on policy instruments-including single-use plastic bans, extended producer responsibility (EPR), and international governance initiatives-together with advances in chemical and thermochemical recycling, photocatalytic and advanced oxidation processes, biotechnological treatments, and bio-based materials. Rather than providing an exhaustive inventory of technologies, the analysis emphasizes system-level trade-offs, life-cycle performance, scalability constraints, and unintended consequences, including energy demand, emissions, end-of-life failures, and secondary MP/NP generation. The review highlights persistent gaps in enforcement capacity, standardization of monitoring, and socio-economic integration that limit the real-world effectiveness of both policy and technology, particularly in low- and middle-income contexts. We argue that sustainable plastic management depends not on isolated regulatory or technological solutions, but on coordinated socio-technical alignment across governance, infrastructure, innovation, and behavior. Strengthening life-cycle assessment, quality assurance in MP/NP detection, and inclusive governance frameworks is essential to translating innovation into measurable, equitable reductions in plastic pollution.