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Formation of Species

Formation of Species

Speciation describes the formation of one or more new species from one or sometimes multiple original species. The resulting species are discrete from the parent species, and barriers to reproduction will typically exist. There are two primary mechanisms, speciation with and without geographic isolation—allopatric and sympatric speciation, respectively.

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The Evidence for Evolution

The Evidence for Evolution

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The Angiosperm Life Cycle

The Angiosperm Life Cycle

Plants have a life cycle split between two multicellular stages: a haploid stage—with cells containing one set of chromosomes—and a diploid stage—with cells containing two sets of chromosomes. The haploid stage is the gamete-producing gametophyte, and the diploid stage is the spore-producing sporophyte.

Pollination and Flower Structure

Pollination and Flower Structure

Flowers are the reproductive, seed-producing structures of angiosperms. Typically, flowers consist of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Sepals and petals are the vegetative flower organs. Stamens and carpels are the reproductive organs.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 13, 2026

Author Spotlight: A High-Resolution, Single-Grain, In Vivo Pollen Hydration Bioassay for Arabidopsis thaliana

Author Spotlight: A High-Resolution, Single-Grain, In Vivo Pollen Hydration Bioassay for Arabidopsis thaliana

Published on: June 30, 2023

Pulsed evolution shaped extant angiosperm pollen disparity.

Yang Luo¹, Hong-Tao Li¹, Lu Lu¹

¹Germplasm Bank of Wild Species and Yunnan Key Laboratory of Wild Crop Relative Omics, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China.

Nature Communications

|January 7, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Angiosperm pollen diversity expanded through two major pulses, linked to environmental changes and innovations. Pollen disparity reveals key insights into angiosperm radiation and plant evolution.

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Last Updated: Jan 13, 2026

Author Spotlight: A High-Resolution, Single-Grain, In Vivo Pollen Hydration Bioassay for Arabidopsis thaliana

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Published on: June 30, 2023

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Published on: January 19, 2021

Area of Science:

Paleobotany
Evolutionary Biology
Plant Sciences

Background:

Pollen grains are crucial for understanding past plant diversity due to their preservation.
Angiosperm pollen diversification patterns remain poorly quantified.
Sporopollenin walls provide remarkable structural diversity and preservation.

Purpose of the Study:

To quantify the evolutionary dynamics of angiosperm pollen.
To analyze morphospace occupation, disparity, and morphological evolution rates.
To understand angiosperm pollen diversification in relation to environmental changes and innovations.

Main Methods:

Integrated a genus-level pollen trait dataset with a time-calibrated phylogeny.
Quantified morphospace occupation, disparity, and rates of morphological evolution.
Inferred evolutionary patterns based on extant morphologies.

Main Results:

Angiosperm pollen disparity expanded via two major pulsed increases in the Mid Cretaceous and Paleogene.
These increases correlated with significant environmental shifts and key pollen innovations.
Early angiosperm evolution showed low disparity followed by a rapid Mid Cretaceous surge.

Conclusions:

Pollen disparity is a powerful tool for tracing angiosperm radiation.
Diversification involved a synergistic interplay between innovation and ecological opportunities.
Findings provide critical context for interpreting the angiosperm fossil record.