Machine and Deep Learning for Detection of Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity From Accelerometer Data: Systematic...

Accurate monitoring of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) is critical for advancing public health research and personalized interventions. Traditional accelerometry methods, reliant on regression-derived intensity cut points, exhibit significant misclassification errors and poor generalizability to the free-living environment. Recent advancements in machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) offer promising alternatives for automated MVPA detection.

This scoping review synthesizes evidence on ML and DL techniques for MVPA estimation and prediction using accelerometer data, focusing on performance, algorithm bias, sensor configurations, and translational potential.

Following PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines, we conducted a systematic search across PubMed, IEEE Xplore, and Web of Science (February 1995-April 2025), supplemented by snowball citation tracking. Two independent reviewers screened titles, abstracts, and full texts against predefined inclusion criteria. Data from included studies were charted by one reviewer and verified by the other, extracting details on study characteristics, sensor configuration, ML and DL techniques, validation methods, and performance metrics. A narrative synthesis approach was used, guided by 6 research questions, to collate and summarize the findings. The synthesis process was rigorously reviewed by multiple authors to ensure consistency.

Of 1938 screened studies, 40 met the inclusion criteria, with 4 studies added by follow-up manual searches. While traditional ML models (eg, random forest, support vector machine) achieved strong laboratory performance with F₁-score of 87.4%-100% and accuracy of 87.9%-100%, their real-world performance declined by 8.0%-13.3% in F₁-score and 6.6%-12.2% in accuracy, due to environment noise and device heterogeneity. DL architectures (eg, convolutional neural networks, transformers) achieved robust performance by leveraging raw signal dynamics with an F₁-score of 71.9%-79.8% and an accuracy of 87.9%-100% in free-living settings. Hybrid models (eg, convolutional neural networks and long short-term memory) demonstrated state-of-the-art performance (F₁-score 91.4%-98.4%, accuracy 97.7%-99.0%). Wrist-worn sensors dominated studies (30/40, 75%) and matched hip/thigh placements in lab settings (mean F₁-scores: 86.5%-88.6%), but multisensor configurations (wrist + hip) yielded the highest accuracy (89.7%). Key challenges included algorithmic bias reducing applicability in older adult populations, and impaired reproducibility, with only 42.5% (17/40) of studies sharing code and data. Emerging opportunities are noted for edge computing and hybrid models integrating contextual data.

ML and DL significantly enhance MVPA monitoring by automating feature extraction and improving adaptability to free-living variability. However, persistent gaps in generalizability, inconsistent validation protocols, and transparency deficits hinder translation. The findings support the need for future research to prioritize inclusive model training, standardized reporting frameworks, and open science practices to realize the equitable potential of artificial intelligence-driven physical activity assessment.