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A material's elastic behavior is characterized by the disappearance of stress once the load is removed, allowing the material to return to its original state. However, when stress surpasses the yield point, yielding commences, marking the onset of plastic deformation or permanent set. This change from elastic to plastic behavior is influenced by the peak stress value and the duration before the load is removed. An intriguing observation occurs when a specimen is loaded, unloaded, and...
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Plastic Deformations01:14

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It is essential to understand how structural members behave under plastic deformation when the bending stress exceeds the material's yield strength. This state of deformation permanently alters the shape of the member, in contrast to the linear elastic behavior observed before yielding. The strain at any point in the member is expressed in terms of maximum strain. Notably, the neutral axis, which coincides with the centroid during elastic bending, shifts away from the centroid under plastic...
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Plastic Deformations01:19

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Plastic deformation represents a fundamental concept in materials science, which explains the irreversible change in the shape of a material when it experiences stress beyond its elastic capability. This phenomenon is important in structural engineering, especially in designing and analyzing cantilever beams—structures that are securely fixed at one end and bear loads at the opposite end. When these beams are subjected to loads within their elastic range, they will return to their...
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Water-reducers, or plasticizers, are chemical admixtures used in concrete to improve strength and workability. These additives reduce the water-cement ratio without compromising workability, lower the cement content while maintaining the same workability, or increase workability to assist concrete placement in inaccessible areas.
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Superplasticizers

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Superplasticizers are advanced admixtures that enhance the workability of concrete by lowering the water content without compromising the strength of the material. These substances are highly effective water reducers, improving concrete flow, making it easier to work with, and enabling concrete to reach inaccessible areas or densely reinforced sections without mechanical vibration. The key components in superplasticizers are either sulfonated melamine or naphthalene formaldehyde condensates,...
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Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a synthetic polymer widely utilized in the packaging industry, particularly for bottles and containers. Due to its chemical stability and durability, PET accumulates in the environment, contributing significantly to plastic pollution. It comprises repeating units of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol, resulting in a semi-crystalline structure that is resistant to natural degradation processes.A notable breakthrough in plastic biodegradation came with the...
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State-specific enhancer landscapes govern microglial plasticity.

Nicole Hamagami1, Dvita Kapadia2, Kia M Barclay2

  • 1Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.

Immunity
|January 8, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Microglia, the brain's immune cells, originate from a common embryonic source and can dynamically change states during development, aging, and disease, influenced by epigenetic factors.

Keywords:
Alzheimer’s diseaseDNA methylationdevelopmentdisease-associated microgliaenhancershistone modificationsmicrogliaplasticityproliferative-region-associated microgliawhite matter

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Immunology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Single-cell transcriptomics reveals diverse microglial states in brain development, aging, and disease.
  • The origin and plasticity of these microglial subsets remain unclear.
  • The role of epigenetic modifications in regulating microglial state transitions at enhancers is not well-defined.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the ontogeny and plasticity of microglial subpopulations.
  • To define the role of histone modifications and DNA methylation in microglial state switching.

Main Methods:

  • Genetic fate mapping was employed to trace microglial development.
  • Transcriptomic and epigenomic analyses were performed.

Main Results:

  • Demonstrated a common embryonic origin for distinct microglial states, including those in developing white matter.
  • Tracked dynamic transitions between proliferative-region-associated microglia, disease-associated microglia, and white matter-associated microglia.
  • Identified state-specific enhancer histone modifications and transcription regulators governing these transitions.

Conclusions:

  • Microglial states are linked by transcriptomic and epigenomic plasticity, originating from a common embryonic source.
  • Epigenetic mechanisms, including histone modifications, regulate microglial state transitions.
  • This provides insights into microglial roles in health and disease.