Effect of composition and processing method on physicochemical, structural, and rheological characteristics of milk...

Changes in eating habits represent a challenge for the food industry, given the growing demand to replace animal-based proteins with more sustainable alternative sources. In this context, animal&plant-based hybrid systems have been explored as a viable strategy to support the dietary transition, aligning with the global trend toward innovation. This study evaluated the effects of different ratios of milk and pea proteins (25:75, 50:50 and 75:25 milk:pea), as well as different cross-linking methods (heating, transglutaminase and genipin), on hybrid gel formation and properties. A full factorial design (3 × 3) was employed to understand the behavior of the factors and the existence of interactions between them, which is a key aspect for process optimization at the industrial scale. Analyses were performed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), confocal microscopy, particle size distribution, turbidity, color and rheological measurements. The results of this study demonstrated a significant interaction effect among the factors, directly impacting the modulation of the structural and functional properties of hybrid gels. This effect is evidenced by the characteristics observed in the different combinations and by the specific contribution of each crosslinking agent. Furthermore, different technological routes proved capable of achieving similar results, which is a relevant aspect for technical and cost comparisons in industrial applications.