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The mechanical characteristics of steel are assessed through various tests that evaluate its strength, toughness, and flexibility. These tests include tension, torsion, impact, bending, and hardness assessments, each providing crucial information about steel's suitability for specific applications.
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Experimental Study and Numerical Modeling of Inter-Pass Forging in Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing of Inconel 718.

Oleg Yu Smetannikov1, Gleb L Permyakov1, Sergey D Neulybin1

  • 1Department of Welding Production, Metrology and Technology of Material, Perm National Research Polytechnic University, 29 Komsomolsky Prospect, 614990 Perm, Russia.

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|January 10, 2026
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Summary

Inter-pass forging during Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) of Inconel 718 refines microstructure and enhances mechanical properties. Multiple forging passes improve material strength and preserve the forging effect throughout the build process.

Keywords:
Inconel 718Johnson–Cook lawWAAMadditive manufacturingconstitutive model of the materialfinite element modeling (FEM)inter-pass forgingmaterial propertiesmathematical modelingmicrohardnessresidual stress and strain

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Manufacturing Engineering
  • Metallurgy

Background:

  • Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is a promising technique for Inconel 718.
  • Residual stresses and microstructure control are critical challenges in WAAM.
  • Inter-pass forging is explored as a post-processing step to mitigate these issues.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the effect of inter-pass forging on the microstructure and mechanical properties of WAAM Inconel 718.
  • To develop and verify a finite element model for simulating inter-pass forging during WAAM.
  • To analyze the impact of forging sequence and number of passes on residual stress and strain.

Main Methods:

  • Specimen preparation using WAAM with varying inter-pass forging strategies (single-stage, two-stage).
  • Macrostructural analysis to examine grain structure and recrystallization.
  • Mechanical testing to evaluate tensile strength, yield strength, and microhardness.
  • Finite element modeling (FEM) using Johnson-Cook material constants to simulate the thermomechanical process.

Main Results:

  • Inter-pass forging promotes a recrystallized microstructure with alternating columnar and equiaxed grains.
  • Increasing forging passes significantly improves tensile strength, yield strength, and microhardness.
  • The FEM accurately predicted experimental results (within 15% deviation).
  • Plastic deformation depth during forging exceeds melting depth, ensuring effect accumulation.
  • Forging sequence and passes strongly influence residual strain and displacement, but minimally affect residual stress.

Conclusions:

  • Inter-pass forging is an effective method to enhance the properties of WAAM Inconel 718.
  • The developed FEM provides a reliable tool for predicting the effects of inter-pass forging.
  • Optimizing forging parameters is crucial for controlling residual stresses and improving material performance in WAAM.