From initiation to maturation: Mesenchymal stem cells as key facilitators in organoid development

Organoids are three-dimensional cellular structures formed through the self-organization of stem cells that mimic the structure and function of in vivo organs, offering broad applications in biomedical research. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells characterized by their self-renewal capacity and versatile biological roles, particularly in immunomodulation and angiogenesis promotion. While literature suggests that MSCs play a pivotal role in organoid formation, the precise mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain elusive. In this review, we systematically dissect the dual roles of MSCs in organoid construction, including their direct contributions as initiating cells and indirect effects via immunomodulation and angiogenesis, while highlighting unresolved mechanistic questions and future translational potential.