Vascularised Brain Organoids: Engineering Strategies and Neurobiological Applications

Brain organoids have become an essential platform for studying human neural development and neurological disorders. Yet, one major limitation of conventional brain organoids is their lack of vascular structures. This deficiency restricts organoid size, contributes to necrotic core formation, and hampers their functional maturation. Introducing vascularization offers a compelling solution-it enhances nutrient delivery, supports neurogenesis, and fosters the development of interfaces that resemble the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this review, we explore how vascularization enhances the structural and physiological relevance of brain organoids and its growing significance in disease modelling and therapeutic screening. We examine current methodologies for engineering vascularized brain organoids (vBOs), including co-culturing with endothelial cells (ECs), transcriptional programming, tissue fusion techniques, microfluidic perfusion systems, and 3D bioprinting. These strategies vary in complexity, scalability, and the extent to which they achieve vascular integration. Functionally, vBOs demonstrate improved oxygen diffusion, enhanced synaptic development, and more robust barrier properties. Such advances enable modelling of complex neurovascular conditions like stroke, glioblastoma, and BBB dysfunction. Moreover, vBOs are emerging as valuable tools in developmental studies and personalised medicine, supporting patient-derived modelling and large-scale drug testing in BBB-relevant contexts. Despite these advances, replicating the structural complexity, functionality, and long-term stability of native vasculature remains challenging. We discuss current limitations and highlight innovative approaches, including the use of next-generation biomaterials and dynamic perfusion technologies. Ultimately, vBOs mark a significant step towards creating physiologically accurate in vitro models of the human brain-offering new opportunities for neuroscience research, drug development, and regenerative medicine.