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Related Concept Videos

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Immunotherapy is a treatment that boosts or manipulates the immune system to fight diseases, including cancer. For instance, by stimulating an immune response through vaccinations against viruses that cause cancers, like hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus, these diseases can be prevented. Nonetheless, some cancer cells can avoid the immune system due to their rapid mutation and division. The immune response to many cancers involves three phases: elimination, equilibrium, and escape.
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When T cells with CD4 markers are activated, they give rise to two types of effector cells: helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Meanwhile, T cells with CD8 markers differentiate into effector cytotoxic T cells. The differentiation of CD4 T cells into helper T cell subsets, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, is dependent on the antigen type, antigen-presenting cell, and regulatory cytokines.
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Updated: Jan 14, 2026

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Immunotherapies in progressive multiple sclerosis.

Tradite Neziraj1, Ludwig Kappos2, Anne-Katrin Pröbstel3

  • 1Department of Neurology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Departments of Biomedicine and of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Research Center for Clinical Neuroimmunology and Neuroscience Basel (RC2NB), University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.

Handbook of Clinical Neurology
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PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune central nervous system disease. Progression, not just relapses, drives disability, necessitating a focus on underlying neurodegenerative processes for effective treatment.

Keywords:
B cellsImmunomodulationInflammationMultiple sclerosisNeurodegenerationPrimary progressive MSProgression

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroimmunology
  • Neurodegeneration
  • Central Nervous System Disorders

Background:

  • Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune central nervous system disease with genetic and environmental risk factors.
  • While relapsing and progressive courses are known, disease progression is now recognized as the primary driver of neurological disability in MS patients.
  • Understanding the pathophysiology of MS progression is crucial for developing targeted therapies.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To highlight the critical role of disease progression in accumulating neurological disability in multiple sclerosis.
  • To emphasize the need to define the dominant pathophysiologic processes driving MS progression.
  • To discuss the implications of advancing knowledge for developing targeted immunomodulatory treatments.

Main Methods:

  • Review of current understanding of MS pathophysiology, focusing on progressive aspects.
  • Analysis of pathological hallmarks including central nervous system inflammation and neurodegeneration.
  • Examination of evolving clinical trial designs and assessment measures for MS progression.

Main Results:

  • Progressive elements are the dominant factor for neurological disability accumulation across all MS clinical courses.
  • Pathologic hallmarks include compartmentalized central nervous system inflammation and neurodegenerative processes, leading to neuroaxonal and synaptic loss.
  • Growing understanding of pathophysiology supports the development of targeted immunomodulatory treatments for progressive MS.

Conclusions:

  • Defining the dominant pathophysiologic processes driving MS progression is indispensable.
  • Novel clinical trial designs and advanced assessment measures offer opportunities for personalized treatment regimens.
  • Targeted immunomodulatory treatments are emerging for progressive MS based on improved pathophysiologic understanding.