Electrochemical biosensors for the detection of neurodegenerative diseases

This review focuses on the recent progress in electrochemical biosensors, which are emerging as innovative, sensitive, and cost-efficient platforms for identifying and monitoring biomarkers associated with neurodegeneration. We examine the basic principles behind the operation of electrochemical biosensors, emphasizing the significance of bioreceptors and transducers, as well as the influence of electrode materials such as metals, carbon-based nanomaterials, and conducting polymers (CPs) on the sensors' performance. The role of nanotechnology is highlighted for its capacity to improve signal transduction, bioreceptor immobilization, and the detection of multiple targets, all while ensuring miniaturization and portability. Additionally, we outline recent approaches for enhancing signal amplification and optimizing performance across various biosensor generations. The use of these biosensors in detecting protein aggregates, genetic mutations, and exosomal biomarkers is reviewed in the context of early diagnosis and tracking disease progression. Finally, the paper discusses current challenges and suggests future directions to aid the clinical application of electrochemical biosensors in diagnosing neurodegenerative diseases. Major barriers impeding the transition of these technologies to clinical approach are discussed along with the variability in performance with real patient samples, lack of reproducibility, scaling up the synthesis of nanomaterials, and the requirement for changes in standardized validation and regulation.