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Related Concept Videos

Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion01:27

Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion

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The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
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Transdifferentiation, also known as lineage reprogramming, was first discovered by Selman and Kafatos in 1974 in silkmoths. They observed that the moths’ cuticle-producing cells transformed into salt-producing cells. Many such cases of natural transdifferentiation occur in organisms. In humans, pancreatic alpha cells can become beta cells. In newts, the loss of the eye’s lens causes the pigmented epithelial cells to transdifferentiate into the lens cells.
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Multicellular organisms contain a variety of structurally and functionally distinct cell types, but the DNA in all the cells originated from the same parent cells. The differences in the cells can be attributed to the differential gene expression. Liver cells, whose functions include detoxification of blood, production of bile to metabolize fats, and synthesis of proteins essential for metabolism, must express a specific set of genes to perform their functions. Gene expression also varies with...
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Insulin Secretory Vesicles01:05

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Insulin secretory vesicles release insulin to stimulate blood glucose uptake and regulate carbohydrate metabolism. When the blood glucose levels increase, glucose enters the pancreatic β-islet cells through glucose transporters. Once inside, glucose is metabolized through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, producing ATP. This increase in ATP concentration closes ATP-sensitive potassium channels, leading to depolarization of the membrane and the opening of...
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Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose01:16

Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose

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Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
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Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 18, 2026

A High-content In Vitro Pancreatic Islet β-cell Replication Discovery Platform
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A High-content In Vitro Pancreatic Islet β-cell Replication Discovery Platform

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Metabolic Programming of β-Cell Fate, State, and Function through Time and Space.

Tara MacDonald1, Susan Bonner-Weir2,3,4

  • 1Department of Physiology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

Physiology (Bethesda, Md.)
|January 16, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Metabolic programming is crucial for beta-cell (β-cell) function and development. Understanding these metabolic shifts can improve diabetes treatments and cell therapies by enhancing beta-cell maturation.

Keywords:
developmentdiabetesmetabolismstem cellsβ-cell

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Metabolic Biology
  • Stem Cell Biology

Background:

  • Beta-cells (β-cells) regulate glucose homeostasis through insulin secretion.
  • β-cells transition between proliferation, differentiation, and maturation, impacting function across lifespan.
  • Distinct metabolic programs are essential for β-cell state transitions from immaturity to maturity.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To outline the known and unknown metabolic physiology of β-cells during development.
  • To understand how metabolic programs influence β-cell state transitions.
  • To identify strategies for accelerating β-cell maturation and improving diabetes therapies.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on β-cell development in vivo and in vitro.
  • Analysis of transcriptional, nutritional, hormonal, and stress-based cues regulating β-cell development.
  • Comparison of native β-cell development with human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived β-like cells.

Main Results:

  • β-cell state transitions (proliferation, differentiation, maturation) are energy-dependent.
  • Metabolic programming is critical for β-cells to adopt specific functional states.
  • hPSC-derived β-like cells exhibit functional immaturity compared to native β-cells.

Conclusions:

  • Understanding β-cell metabolic physiology is key to addressing functional immaturity.
  • Metabolic insights can guide strategies to enhance β-cell maturation for therapeutic applications.
  • Further research into β-cell metabolism is needed to improve diabetes treatment and cell-based therapies.