Integrative approaches to river ecosystem assessment and restoration: a review of methodologies and strategies for...

River ecosystems are vital to Earth's biogeography and environmental health by facilitating material cycling, energy transfer, and information exchange. However, human activities, including hydraulic engineering, land use changes, industrial and agricultural expansion, and overfishing, have significantly disrupted natural river morphology and ecological patterns. These interventions have altered the river's physical and chemical properties, resulting in biodiversity loss and ecosystem services degradation, prompting increased global attention to river ecological management. This review analyzes the major threats to river ecosystems, emphasizing their collective and interconnected impacts on ecosystem degradation. Current international methods for ecological assessment and restoration are critically evaluated, noting their effectiveness at small to medium scales but limitations when applied to entire river systems. To address these challenges, the review proposes an integrated approach combining macroscopic ecological restoration measures with microscopic analyses of river feedback mechanisms. This holistic perspective considers both upstream and downstream activities, as well as complex interactions between human interventions and river ecosystems. The paper aims to provide new insights for river ecology research, inform policymaking, and suggest future research directions. By advocating for a more comprehensive understanding of river ecosystems, this review contributes to the development of sustainable and effective river governance practices.