Sustainable downstream processing of ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids: Integrated chromatographic strategies and...

Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs) are high-value bioactive metabolites with increasing demand in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical sectors. However, their structural diversity, characterized by numerous analogs and structural isomers, coupled with the complexity of sources such as spores, fruiting bodies, and mycelia, presents significant challenges for high-resolution separation and high-purity isolation. This review critically evaluates the evolution of chromatographic and preparative isolation technologies tailored for GLTs. We systematically analyze three integrated separation workflows, designated as Route I, II, and III, from a chromatographic perspective, focusing on how different stationary phase behaviors and mobile phase configurations address specific sample complexities. Key emerging technologies, including high-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC), and preparative supercritical fluid chromatography (Prep-SFC), are assessed for their efficacy in resolving isomeric pairs and reducing irreversible adsorption. Furthermore, a technical-economic and environmental evaluation using the environmental factor (E-factor) is provided to link separation efficiency with industrial purity requirements ranging from 30 % to 90 %. By comparing the resolution, throughput, and sustainability of these chromatographic modes, this review provides a strategic roadmap for selecting optimal purification platforms to ensure the quality standardization of Ganoderma lucidum products.