Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jan 20, 2026
Optimal Foraging: Foraging with Artificial Habitats and Prey - Procedure
Scale-dependent foraging behaviour and habitat associations of two sympatric marine top predators
Matt I D Carter1, Geert Aarts2,3, Sophie M J M Brasseur2
1Sea Mammal Research Unit, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK.
Context:
Theoretical research has considered how animals should optimise foraging strategies to maximise fitness, adapting search scale to exploit different habitats and minimise competition. Empirical studies have described multi-scale area-restricted search (ARS) strategies for some species, but the physical and biological mechanisms underpinning such behaviour are rarely studied.
Objectives:
Our objectives were to quantify the presence, prevalence, and habitat associations of scale-dependent foraging for two sympatric seal species, accounting for regional variation across the seascape.
Methods:
We analyse a GPS telemetry dataset of 116 grey (Halichoerus grypus) and 325 harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) tracked throughout the North Sea. We test the existence of multi-scale ARS, comparing hidden Markov models (HMMs) with two ARS states against more conventional HMMs (one ARS state). We quantify regional variation and examine the scale-dependence of foraging habitat associations using post-hoc "use-encounter" models.
Results:
Both species exhibited nested broad-scale and focussed ARS. Accounting for scale resulted in increases of up to 25% and 46% in inferred ARS for grey and harbour seals respectively. The prevalence and habitat associations of different ARS scales varied in a regional species-specific manner.
Conclusions:
We demonstrate the first application of HMMs to capture multi-scale ARS from animal-borne tracking data. Overlooking scale-dependence may mask individual variation and underestimate ARS, with consequences for ecological understanding and conservation applications. We hypothesise that seals employ different search scales for different habitats, competition levels and/or prey types. We call for further research to elucidate the prevalence and ecological significance of this phenomenon in other aquatic predators.
Supplementary Information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10980-025-02281-z.
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