Socioeconomic Status, Religiosity and Loneliness in the United States: Resource Substitution or Resource...

This study employs national survey data collected roughly one year into the COVID-19 pandemic to examine the direct effects of SES (education and income) and religiosity on loneliness. Drawing on theories of resource substitution and resource multiplication, we test whether religiosity moderates the effects of SES on loneliness. Findings suggest that respondents with higher levels of education and income tend to report lower levels of loneliness. However, in accordance with resource substitution, the protective effect of income on loneliness was attenuated by higher divine control beliefs, while the protective effect of education was less pronounced among respondents reporting fewer R/S struggles. In support of resource multiplication, the protective effect of education on loneliness was amplified by regular religious attendance. We extend prior studies of religiosity and loneliness and suggest directions for future work.