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Mutations

Mutations

Mutations

Mutations

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. Mutations can be characterized in a number of different ways: whether and how they alter the amino acid sequence of the protein, whether they occur over a small or large area of DNA, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells.
Chromosomal Alterations Are Large-Scale Mutations
While point mutations are changes in a single nucleotide in...

Viral Mutations

Viral Mutations

A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases of DNA or RNA in a genome. Some mutations occur during replication of the genome due to errors made by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA or RNA. Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase is prone to errors because it is not capable of “proofreading” its work. Viruses with RNA-based genomes, like HIV, therefore accrue mutations faster than viruses with DNA-based genomes. Because mutation and recombination provide the raw material...

Plasmids

Plasmids

Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA molecules found in bacteria, archaea, and some eukaryotic microbes like yeast. These small, circular DNA structures typically contain fewer than 30 genes, although some may exist linearly. Plasmids vary in their number within a cell, known as copy number. Single-copy plasmids are present in one copy per cell and multi-copy plasmids are present in multiple copies, reaching over 100 copies per cell.Plasmids usually replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA...

pH Scale

pH Scale

Hydronium and hydroxide ions are present both in pure water and in all aqueous solutions, and their concentrations are inversely proportional as determined by the ion product of water (Kw). The concentrations of these ions in a solution are often critical determinants of the solution’s properties and the chemical behaviors of its other solutes. Two different solutions can differ in their hydronium or hydroxide ion concentrations by a million, billion, or even trillion times. A common means of...

Mutation, Gene Flow, and Genetic Drift

Mutation, Gene Flow, and Genetic Drift

In a population that is not at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of alleles changes over time. Therefore, any deviations from the five conditions of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium can alter the genetic variation of a given population. Conditions that change the genetic variability of a population include mutations, natural selection, non-random mating, gene flow, and genetic drift (small population size).

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Updated: Jan 24, 2026

Measuring Microbial Mutation Rates with the Fluctuation Assay

Measuring Microbial Mutation Rates with the Fluctuation Assay

Published on: November 28, 2019

Plasmid mutation rates scale with copy number.

Paula Ramiro-Martínez^1,2, Ignacio de Quinto¹, Laura Jaraba-Soto¹

¹Microbiology Department, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal-Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria, Madrid 28034, Spain.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

|January 22, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Plasmids accelerate bacterial evolution by increasing mutation supply, outweighing random genetic drift. This enhanced evolvability, driven by plasmid copy number, is crucial for traits like antibiotic resistance.

Keywords:

bacterial evolution mutation rates plasmids polyploidy segregational drift

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Homemade Site Directed Mutagenesis of Whole Plasmids

Homemade Site Directed Mutagenesis of Whole Plasmids

Published on: May 11, 2009

Area of Science:

Microbiology
Evolutionary Biology
Genetics

Background:

Plasmids, extrachromosomal DNA, drive bacterial evolution via horizontal transfer.
Multiple plasmid copies increase mutation supply but random segregation causes genetic drift.
The balance between mutation supply and drift impacts plasmid-encoded gene evolution.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a population genetics framework for predicting plasmid mutation rates.
To quantify the interplay between plasmid copy number, mutation supply, and segregational drift.
To assess the overall impact of plasmids on bacterial evolvability.

Main Methods:

Developed a population genetics framework.
Validated predictions using computational simulations.
Confirmed findings with experimental evolution studies.
Utilized bioinformatic analyses of plasmid populations.

Main Results:

Plasmid mutation rates exhibit a logarithmic relationship with copy number.
Mutation supply consistently exceeds segregational drift effects across all copy numbers.
Plasmids significantly enhance bacterial evolvability, independent of copy number.

Conclusions:

Plasmids are key drivers of bacterial evolvability due to their mutation supply.
Segregational drift does not significantly impede plasmid-mediated evolution.
Plasmids potentiate the evolution of important traits, including antibiotic resistance.