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Related Concept Videos

Longitudinal Studies01:26

Longitudinal Studies

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Longitudinal studies are also widely used in other medical and social science fields. For instance, in cardiovascular research, they can monitor patients' health over decades to identify risk factors for heart disease, such as high cholesterol or smoking, and evaluate the long-term effectiveness of preventive measures. Similarly, in mental health studies, researchers might follow individuals from adolescence into adulthood to understand the development and progression of conditions like...
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Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. When we test the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are conducting longitudinal research. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. For example, we may survey a group of individuals about their dietary habits at age 20, retest them a decade later at age 30, and then again...
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Genome-wide association studies or GWAS are used to identify whether common SNPs are associated with certain diseases. Suppose specific SNPs are more frequently observed in individuals with a particular disease than those without the disease. In that case, those SNPs are said to be associated with the disease. Chi-square analysis is performed to check the probability of the allele likely to be associated with the disease.
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Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behavior (Tavris & Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005). Often, our behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our...
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Vitamins, derived from the Latin word for life, are essential organic substances required in small quantities for optimal growth and overall well-being. Unlike other organic nutrients, vitamins don't act as sources of energy or building materials but rather facilitate these nutrients' utilization by the body. Vitamins are predominantly coenzymes, assisting enzymes in specific chemical actions, like the oxidation of glucose for energy involving B vitamins. Most vitamins are not produced...
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Association areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have a specific sensory or motor function. Instead, they integrate and interpret information from various sources to enable higher cognitive processes such as memory, learning, and decision-making. Some key association areas include the following:
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 24, 2026

Shuttle Box Assay as an Associative Learning Tool for Cognitive Assessment in Learning and Memory Studies using Adult Zebrafish
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Association between vitamin D supplement use and cognitive functioning: a longitudinal cohort study.

Rong Hua1,2, Chun Sing Lam2, Vincent Chung Tong Mok3,4,5

  • 1School of Nursing, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.

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|January 22, 2026
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Vitamin D supplements did not slow cognitive decline in older adults with sufficient vitamin D levels. Healthcare providers should advise caution regarding supplementation without clear indications.

Keywords:
AgingCognitionEPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIESGERIATRIC MEDICINE

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Area of Science:

  • Gerontology
  • Nutritional Neuroscience
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Evidence linking vitamin D supplementation to cognitive outcomes remains limited and conflicting.
  • Investigating the real-world impact of vitamin D supplement use on cognitive function in older adults is crucial.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To examine the longitudinal association between vitamin D supplement use and subsequent cognitive functioning in a US older adult population.

Main Methods:

  • Prospective cohort study utilizing data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) waves 12-15.
  • Included 5065 US older adults (mean age 67.5 years), with cognitive function assessed over 6 years.
  • Linear mixed models were used to estimate changes in cognitive scores, adjusting for covariates.

Main Results:

  • Vitamin D supplement users exhibited an accelerated decline in global cognitive function (difference: -0.052 points/year) and executive function (difference: -0.021 points/year) compared to non-users.
  • This accelerated decline was specifically observed in supplement users with normal baseline serum 25(OH)D levels.
  • No significant association was found between vitamin D supplementation and cognitive decline in individuals with insufficient or deficient vitamin D levels.

Conclusions:

  • Vitamin D supplementation does not appear to prevent or slow cognitive decline in older adults with adequate vitamin D status.
  • Recommendations for vitamin D supplements in older adults should be made cautiously, prioritizing dietary intake and sun exposure.
  • Further research is needed to clarify the role of vitamin D in cognitive health and to identify appropriate supplementation strategies.