Remediation of hazardous explosive-contaminated soil at field scale: a data-oriented review of technologies,...

Explosive contamination in soil from mining, demolition, and defense activities poses serious threats to both environmental and human health. While remediation methods have been evaluated at the laboratory scale, their performance in the field remains a significant concern. This review consolidates field-tested remediation studies and highlights knowledge gaps, emphasizing the need for regulatory alignment and research focused on scalable, low-impact solutions. Statistical analysis via the Kruskal‒Wallis test (p > 0.05) revealed no significant differences in efficiency, cost, or treatment duration across physical, chemical, and biological technologies, indicating that method selection should be site specific. The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) identified remediation efficiency (45% weight) and cost (12% weight) as the most influential decision factors. Among the biological methods, biopiles achieved the highest efficiency (99.7%) with moderate environmental risk, whereas phytoremediation emerged as the most cost-effective option ($50/tonne) despite its lower efficiency (70%). Zero-valent iron (ZVI) performed best among chemical options, achieving over 96% removal at a reasonable cost. Chemical oxidation, while effective (95%), has raised concerns due to excessive cost and additional chemical requirements. In terms of physical methods, soil washing has moderate efficiency and cost, whereas incineration has the lowest efficiency due to excessive cost and environmental burden. Correlation analysis revealed a strong negative correlation between cost and treatment duration and a positive correlation between cost and efficiency. Integrated approaches that combine biostimulation and composting provide both effectiveness and sustainability. Factors such as contaminant type, soil properties, bioavailability, and climatic conditions significantly influence field-scale performance. Nature-based methods have shown strong potential for long-term ecological benefits.