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Coordination Number and Geometry

Coordination Number and Geometry

For transition metal complexes, the coordination number determines the geometry around the central metal ion. Table 1 compares coordination numbers to molecular geometry. The most common structures of the complexes in coordination compounds are octahedral, tetrahedral, and square planar.

Coordination Compounds and Nomenclature

Coordination Compounds and Nomenclature

In most main group element compounds, the valence electrons of the isolated atoms combine to form chemical bonds that satisfy the octet rule. For instance, the four valence electrons of carbon overlap with electrons from four hydrogen atoms to form CH4. The one valence electron leaves sodium and adds to the seven valence electrons of chlorine to form the ionic formula unit NaCl (Figure 1a). Transition metals do not normally bond in this fashion. They primarily form coordinate covalent bonds, a...

Lattice Centering and Coordination Number

Lattice Centering and Coordination Number

The structure of a crystalline solid, whether a metal or not, is best described by considering its simplest repeating unit, which is referred to as its unit cell. The unit cell consists of lattice points that represent the locations of atoms or ions. The entire structure then consists of this unit cell repeating in three dimensions. The three different types of unit cells present in the cubic lattice are illustrated in Figure 1.
Types of Unit Cells
Imagine taking a large number of identical...

Metallic Solids

Metallic Solids

Metallic solids such as crystals of copper, aluminum, and iron are formed by metal atoms. The structure of metallic crystals is often described as a uniform distribution of atomic nuclei within a “sea” of delocalized electrons. The atoms within such a metallic solid are held together by a unique force known as metallic bonding that gives rise to many useful and varied bulk properties.
All metallic solids exhibit high thermal and electrical conductivity, metallic luster, and malleability....

Molecular and Ionic Solids

Molecular and Ionic Solids

Crystalline solids are divided into four types: molecular, ionic, metallic, and covalent network based on the type of constituent units and their interparticle interactions.
Molecular Solids
Molecular crystalline solids, such as ice, sucrose (table sugar), and iodine, are solids that are composed of neutral molecules as their constituent units. These molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces such as London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, or hydrogen bonds, which...

Structures of Solids

Structures of Solids

Solids in which the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a definite repeating pattern are known as crystalline solids. Metals and ionic compounds typically form ordered, crystalline solids. A crystalline solid has a precise melting temperature because each atom or molecule of the same type is held in place with the same forces or energy. Amorphous solids or non-crystalline solids (or, sometimes, glasses) which lack an ordered internal structure and are randomly arranged. Substances that...

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Updated: Jan 24, 2026

Bacterial Cellulose Spheres that Encapsulate Solid Materials

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Published on: February 26, 2021

Medium-Sized-Molecule Encapsulation in Coordination Cages via Solid-State Mechanochemistry.

Kenta Iizuka¹, Hiroki Takezawa¹, Makoto Fujita^2,3

¹Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Mitsui Link Lab Kashiwanoha 1, FS CREATION, 6-6-2 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-0882, Japan.

Journal of the American Chemical Society

|January 23, 2026

Summary

Solid-state mechanochemical grinding enables efficient encapsulation of medium-sized molecules into synthetic coordination cages. This solvent-free method overcomes solution barriers, yielding persistent inclusion complexes for analysis and design.

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Area of Science:

Supramolecular Chemistry
Materials Science
Chemical Engineering

Background:

Encapsulating medium-sized molecules in synthetic hosts is challenging due to limitations in host design and kinetic/thermodynamic barriers.
Existing solution-based methods often struggle with low yields or slow reaction rates for bulky guest molecules.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a novel, efficient method for encapsulating medium-sized molecules into synthetic coordination cages.
To overcome the limitations of solution-based encapsulation techniques.
To enable the characterization and manipulation of challenging host-guest complexes.

Main Methods:

Solid-state mechanochemical grinding of a large M9L6 coordination cage with various medium-sized guests.
Solvent-free synthesis approach.
Characterization of resulting inclusion complexes using techniques including X-ray crystallography.

Main Results:

High-yielding formation of inclusion complexes previously inaccessible or slow to form in solution.
Demonstration of kinetically persistent complexes in solution for extended periods (hours to days).
Successful application of the method to both large and smaller cage systems, including pharmaceuticals and synthetic macrocycles.

Conclusions:

Solid-state grinding is a powerful and versatile strategy for accessing metastable host-guest systems.
This approach overcomes kinetic and thermodynamic barriers in encapsulation.
Opens new avenues for structural analysis and the design of functional supramolecular architectures.