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Nucleophilic Addition to the Carbonyl Group: General Mechanism01:18

Nucleophilic Addition to the Carbonyl Group: General Mechanism

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The carbonyl carbon in an aldehyde or ketone is the site of a nucleophilic attack due to its electron-deficient nature. Depending on the strength of the incoming nucleophile, the reaction occurs via different mechanistic pathways.
A stronger nucleophile can directly attack the electrophilic center, the carbonyl carbon. The HOMO orbital of the nucleophile interacts with the LUMO (π* antibonding) orbital present on the carbonyl carbon. This interaction breaks the π bond and shifts the π...
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Radical Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism01:09

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The radical chain-growth polymerization mechanism consists of three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination of polymerization. The polymerization initiates when a free radical generated from the radical initiator adds to the unsaturated bond in the monomer. The unpaired electron of the free radical and one π electron in the unsaturated bond creates a σ bond between the free radical and the monomer. As a result, the other π electron in the unsaturated bond converts this species into...
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Anionic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism01:04

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The mechanism for anionic chain-growth polymerization involves initiation, propagation, and termination steps. In the initiation step, a nucleophilic anion, such as butyl lithium, initiates the polymerization process by attacking the π bond of the vinylic monomer. As a result, a carbanion, stabilized by the electron‐withdrawing group, is generated. The resulting carbanion acts as a Michael donor in the propagation step and attacks the second vinylic monomer, which acts as a Michael...
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Cationic Chain-Growth Polymerization: Mechanism00:57

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The cationic polymerization mechanism consists of three steps: initiation, propagation, and termination. In the initiation step of the polymerization process, the π bond of a monomer gets protonated by the Lewis acid catalyst, which is formed from boron trifluoride and water. The protonation of the π bond generates a carbocation stabilized by the electron‐donating group. In the propagation step, the π bond of the second monomer acts as a nucleophile and attacks the...
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Radical Anti-Markovnikov Addition to Alkenes: Mechanism01:17

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The reaction of hydrogen bromide with alkenes in the presence of hydroperoxides or peroxides proceeds via anti-Markovnikov addition. The radical chain reaction comprises initiation, propagation, and termination steps.
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Conjugate Addition (1,4-Addition) vs Direct Addition (1,2-Addition)01:27

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α,β-Unsaturated carbonyl compounds with two electrophilic sites, the carbonyl carbon, and the β carbon, are susceptible to nucleophilic attack via two modes: conjugate or 1,4-addition and direct or 1,2-addition.
Conjugate addition results in a thermodynamically stable product. The reaction retains the stronger C=O bond at the expense of the weaker C=C π bond. The process is slow as the β carbon is less electrophilic than the carbonyl carbon.
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Additive Manufacturing of Polymeric Bioresorbable Stents: A Mechanical Performance Perspective.

Gurminder Singh1,2, Irina Khaydukova1, Kevin Walsh3

  • 1School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, UCD Centre for Biomedical Engineering, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.

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Additive manufacturing (AM) shows promise for creating advanced polymeric stents. This review explores AM techniques, material properties, and a roadmap for translating these innovative cardiovascular devices from research to clinical use.

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Area of Science:

  • Biomaterials Science
  • Medical Device Manufacturing
  • Cardiovascular Engineering

Background:

  • Additive manufacturing (AM) is transforming implantable device development.
  • While AM offers design flexibility, scalable manufacturing of medical devices remains a challenge.
  • Polymeric stent AM is an emerging field, distinct from established metallic stent technologies.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the current state and future prospects of AM for polymeric bioresorbable stents.
  • To analyze key aspects including geometry, material composition, mechanical properties, and surface quality for cardiovascular applications.
  • To compare advancements in bioresorbable polymeric stents with traditional metallic stents.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on AM techniques for stent fabrication.
  • Analysis of material science and mechanical property data for bioresorbable polymers.
  • Comparative assessment of AM polymeric stents versus clinically used metallic stents.

Main Results:

  • AM enables customized design and fabrication of polymeric bioresorbable stents.
  • Key parameters like geometry, material, and surface quality are critical for performance.
  • Significant progress has been made, but challenges in scalability and clinical translation persist.

Conclusions:

  • AM holds substantial potential for developing next-generation bioresorbable polymeric stents.
  • Further research and development are needed to optimize fabrication processes and ensure clinical efficacy.
  • A clear roadmap is proposed to guide the transition of AM stents from laboratory to clinical practice.