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Functions of Thyroid Hormones01:18

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

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The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...
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Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones01:20

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Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The...
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Types of Hormones02:13

Types of Hormones

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Hormones can be classified into three main types based on their chemical structures: steroids, peptides, and amines. Their actions are mediated by the specific receptors they bind to on target cells.
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Types of Hormones01:21

Types of Hormones

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Hormones are classified into four main groups: steroids, eicosanoids, amino acid-based derivatives, and peptide hormones.
Steroids and eicosanoids fall under the category of lipid-soluble hormones. Steroids are derived from cholesterol and feature four interconnected carbon rings with variable side chains. Notable examples include estradiol from ovaries and testosterone from testes, exemplifying the critical roles of these lipid-soluble hormones in reproductive physiology. Eicosanoids, derived...
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Hormonal Regulation01:33

Hormonal Regulation

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The renin-aldosterone system is an endocrine system which guides the renal absorption of water and electrolytes, thus managing blood pressure and osmoregulation. Activation of the system begins in the kidneys with a small cluster of cells adjacent to the afferent and efferent blood vessels of the renal corpuscle. As the nephrons are filtering blood, juxtaglomerular cells monitor blood pressure. If they detect a decrease in pressure, they release the hormone renin into the bloodstream.
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Hormonal Regulation01:40

Hormonal Regulation

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Hormones regulate a significant portion of digestion through activation of the neuroendocrine system. The neuroendocrine system of digestion contains many different hormones all with multiple functions that are both, directly and indirectly, involved in digestion.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 27, 2026

A Personalized 3D-Printed Model for Preoperative Evaluation in Thyroid Surgery
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Personalized p-THYROSIM model for thyroid hormone dynamics, hypothyroidism treatment & implementation in an iOS

Joseph DiStefano1, Katarina Reid1, Karim Ghabra1

  • 1Biocybernetics Laboratory, Departments of Computer Science and Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, United States.

Frontiers in Endocrinology
|January 26, 2026
PubMed
Summary

This study refines p-THYROSIM, a thyroid hormone simulation tool, for personalized levothyroxine (LT4) and LT4+liothyronine (LT3) dosing in hypothyroid patients. The updated tool and new app improve prediction accuracy for hormone replacement therapy.

Keywords:
combination hormone replacement therapymath modelmonotherapyoptimal dosingpersonalized medicineresidual thyroid functionsimulation model

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Computational Biology
  • Pharmacology

Background:

  • Hypothyroidism affects millions globally, requiring precise hormone replacement therapy.
  • Current dosing strategies for levothyroxine (LT4) and liothyronine (LT3) can be challenging to personalize.
  • Mathematical modeling offers a promising approach to optimize individual treatment plans.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To refine the p-THYROSIM simulation tool for enhanced prediction of thyroid hormone regulation.
  • To develop user-friendly software (iOS app and Python version) for personalized LT4 and LT4+LT3 dosing in hypothyroid patients.
  • To improve the accuracy of simulations by incorporating individual height and weight, rather than BMI.

Main Methods:

  • Refitted male and female data to establish blood volume as a function of height and weight separately.
  • Removed a superfluous parameter and adjusted FT4/FT3 plotting to align with current assay ranges.
  • Developed an iOS app for 100-day simulations and a Python version for 1000-day simulations.

Main Results:

  • The iOS app was tested in clinical applications, including simulations for hemi-thyroidectomy and hormone replacement therapy.
  • Simulations demonstrated that combination LT4+LT3 therapy is more effective than LT4 alone in achieving normal plasma FT4, FT3, and TSH levels.
  • Graphic hormone responses for simulated Hashimoto's disease patients undergoing different replacement therapies were illustrated.

Conclusions:

  • The refined p-THYROSIM tool and associated software can accurately predict personalized LT4 and LT4+LT3 replacement therapies for hypothyroid patients.
  • Combination therapy requires relatively low doses of LT3 (typically 5-7.5 ug) in addition to LT4 to restore euthyroid levels.
  • Further research into safe and effective combination therapies with lower LT3 doses and slow-release formulations is warranted.