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Updated: Jan 27, 2026

Revealing Dynamic Processes of Materials in Liquids Using Liquid Cell Transmission Electron Microscopy

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Published on: December 20, 2012

Nonclassical Nucleation Pathways in Liquid Condensation Revealed by Simulation and Theory.

Yijian Wu¹, Thomas Philippe¹, Aymane Graini¹

¹Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Ecole polytechnique, Laboratoire de Physique de la Matière Condensée, CNRS, 91120 Palaiseau, France.

Physical Review Letters

|January 26, 2026

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Critical clusters in liquid condensation have a different density than bulk liquid. A new theory incorporating cluster density accurately predicts nucleation, improving our understanding of this process.

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Area of Science:

Physical Chemistry
Computational Physics
Materials Science

Background:

Nucleation is fundamental to phase transitions, including liquid condensation.
Classical nucleation theory often assumes critical clusters have bulk liquid density, a simplification potentially limiting accuracy.

Purpose of the Study:

To precisely characterize droplet nucleation from supersaturated gas using advanced simulations.
To investigate the density of critical clusters during nucleation.
To develop and validate a refined nucleation theory.

Main Methods:

State-of-the-art rare-event sampling simulations were employed.
Atomistic simulations were used to observe nucleation pathways.
A two-variable nucleation theory, accounting for cluster density, was developed and tested.

Main Results:

Critical clusters were found to have a density significantly different from bulk liquid.
A nonclassical nucleation pathway involving simultaneous growth and densification was observed.
The two-variable nucleation theory quantitatively reproduced simulation results for nucleation rates and critical properties.

Conclusions:

Cluster density is a critical variable in nucleation phenomena.
The developed two-variable theory offers a more accurate description of nucleation pathways and rates.
This work refines nucleation theory by moving beyond single-variable approximations.