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Beyond Mean Scores: Sex Differences in Literacy, Numeracy, and Problem-Solving as Intraindividual Strengths Across
Marco Balducci1, Waseem Haider2
1Department of Psychology and Speech Language Pathology, INVEST Flagship Research Center, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland.
Journal of Intelligence
|January 27, 2026
Summary
Women excel in literacy, men in numeracy, but problem-solving shows no sex difference. Intraindividual strengths, not just average scores, may explain disparities in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) participation across the lifespan.
Area of Science:
- Cognitive Psychology
- Educational Psychology
- Sociology of Science
Background:
- Underrepresentation of women in STEM fields is a persistent issue.
- Traditional research on sex differences in cognitive abilities, focusing on mean scores, has not explained STEM participation disparities.
- Intraindividual strengths, reflecting an individual's relative skill advantages, are a newer, potentially more relevant factor, but remain unexplored across the lifespan.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate sex differences in intraindividual strengths in literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving across the adult lifespan.
- To determine if intraindividual strengths, rather than mean score differences, better explain sex disparities in STEM fields.
- To analyze these differences across multiple age groups and countries.
Main Methods:
- Utilized data from the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) Cycle 2.
- Included 157,525 individuals from 30 countries, segmented into five age groups (16-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55+ years).
- Assessed sex differences in literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving as intraindividual strengths.
Main Results:
- Women consistently outperformed men in literacy strengths, while men outperformed women in numeracy strengths, across all countries and age groups.
- No significant sex differences were found in problem-solving strengths.
- Literacy and numeracy strengths showed consistent patterns across diverse populations and age cohorts.
Conclusions:
- Intraindividual strengths in literacy and numeracy exhibit clear sex-based patterns across the lifespan and globally.
- Problem-solving skills do not show similar sex-based differentiation in intraindividual strengths.
- Future research should prioritize intraindividual strengths over mean scores to understand and address sex disparities in STEM participation.
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