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Related Concept Videos

Arteries of the Upper Limbs01:12

Arteries of the Upper Limbs

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The subclavian artery transitions into the axillary artery as it exits the chest and enters the axillary region. This artery is critical for supplying blood to the shoulder area, including the head of the humerus, through the humeral circumflex arteries. As the vessel continues into the upper arm or brachium, it becomes the brachial artery. This artery plays a key role in vascularizing the brachial region and bifurcates at the elbow into several branches. These branches include the deep...
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The human circulatory system, a marvel of biological engineering, is a complex network of vessels that transport blood throughout the body. Among these, the veins responsible for carrying blood from the upper limbs are divided into two categories: deep and superficial.
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus01:19

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna01:15

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The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side...
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius01:09

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The radius is longer of the two bones that make up the human antebrachium or forearm. At the proximal end, the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna to form the elbow joint. At the distal end, the radius articulates with the ulna via the ulnar notch, forming the distal radioulnar joint. Distally, the radius also attaches to the carpal wrist bones (scaphoid and lunate) to form the radiocarpal joint.
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Dose-Response Relationship: Overview01:03

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Agonists can bind with and activate receptors, resulting in the formation of drug-receptor complexes. Once formed, these complexes catalyze many biochemical processes at the cellular level and subsequently induce a pharmacologic response. The degree of response is directly proportional to the fraction of activated receptors, which in turn, depends on the concentration of the drug at the receptor site as well as the sensitivity of the receptor. An increase in the administered dose contributes to...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 29, 2026

Event-related Potentials During Target-response Tasks to Study Cognitive Processes of Upper Limb Use in Children with Unilateral Cerebral Palsy
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The Relationship Between Emotion Processing and Flexor Afferent Responses in Upper Limbs.

Gianluca Isoardo1, Rita B Ardito2, Stefano Ciullo2

  • 1SC Neurologia 1U, Hospital "Città della Salute e della Scienza di Torino", 10126 Turin, Italy.

Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)
|January 28, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Emotional processing influences spinal reflexes in chronic neuropathic pain. Anxiety, depression, and alexithymia correlate with altered cutaneomuscular reflexes (CMRs) and cutaneous silent period (CSP) durations.

Keywords:
biomedical sensingcutaneomuscular reflex (CMR)cutaneous silent period (CSP)electrodiagnostic systememotionflexor reflexesnerve conduction studiesneurophysiologyquantitative sensory testing (QST)stimulation threshold (mA)

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Pain Research
  • Psychophysiology

Background:

  • Emotional processing's impact on motor reflexes, particularly cutaneomuscular reflexes (CMRs) and cutaneous silent period (CSP), in upper limb neuropathic pain is not well understood.
  • Chronic neuropathic pain conditions like carpal tunnel syndrome and post-burn scars involve complex sensory and emotional components.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate how emotional processing affects flexor reflex responses (CMRs and CSP) in patients with chronic upper limb neuropathic pain.
  • To explore the relationship between neurophysiological reflex measures and psychological factors such as anxiety, depression, and emotion processing.

Main Methods:

  • Fifty-one patients with chronic upper limb neuropathic pain and 20 healthy controls underwent neurophysiological assessments (CMRs, CSP, nerve conduction) and psychological evaluations.
  • Standardized electrodiagnostic signal acquisition and surface electrode recordings were used for CMR and CSP measurements.
  • Statistical analyses, including General Linear Model, examined correlations between neurophysiological and psychological data.

Main Results:

  • Patients exhibited significantly longer duration and higher intensity of CMRs and CSP compared to controls.
  • CMR and CSP durations positively correlated with anxiety, depression, and alexithymia, and negatively with facial emotion recognition.
  • Tactile and pain perception thresholds mediated the relationship between reflex measures and psychological factors.

Conclusions:

  • Spinal reflex responses in the upper limbs are modulated by emotional and cognitive-affective processes in chronic neuropathic pain.
  • This highlights a complex interplay between emotion regulation, sensory perception, and motor control in neuropathic pain conditions.